Existential authenticity

When people are born, they come into a world of pre-existing beliefs and values, from where they learn how to socialise, behave and so on (Kirillova et al. 2016). By endorsing these values, they compromise their own essence (Sartre 1966), thereby making themselves inauthentic (Heidegger 1962). In order to attain authenticity, these individuals need to forgo cultural values to preserve meaningful intrinsic values (Kirillova et al. 2016). The term existential authenticity has been welcomed by many scholars as a form of subjective authenticity (Steiner and Reisinger 2006), while others continue to debate on it. It is subjective because, as Collins-Kreiner (2010) noted, each individual interprets his/her experience in his/her way. According to Belhassen and Caton (2006), the term existential authenticity is highly-functional and it is in fact an open concept allowing different scholars with different standpoints to discuss, to reflect and to influence each other thus generating and adding new knowledge in the tourism field. Some authors believe that existential authenticity should be employed and the use of the concept of ‘object authenticity’ should be abandoned (Steiner and Reisinger 2006), as existential experiences are not derived from and do not depend on authentic surroundings (Wang 2000). Nevertheless, in practice, the concept of object authenticity is not lost and is therefore still relevant (Belhassen and Caton 2006; Chhabra 2010, 2012), especially because of one’s perspectives and understanding of what constitute authenticity (Taheri et al. 2017).

The term existential authenticity reflects a conceptual shift from an objective view to a more subjective view of authenticity (Wang 1999; Kim and Jamal 2007). Belhassen et al. (2008) have supported the view that there is merit in this conceptual shift because it justifies the individual and other types of manifestations of his/her experiences. Therefore, adopting the scope of existential authenticity becomes a wise option as it considers experience based on the personal feelings of those involved in the activities and not based solely on objects (Wang 1999). Zhou et al. (2015) furthered this definition by stating that existential authenticity is associated with feelings, emotions and perceptions of the individuals in terms of their identity, unique spiritual experience and their connection to civilisation as well as local history. In other words, the study of authenticity should not be thought to be that of the toured objects but rather that of a function of the self. Kim and Jamal (2007) suggested that festivals are non-tangible aspects of heritage that offer freedom from the daily life. This freedom, from the daily routine, is believed to help attain an authentic way of being. As such, by repeatedly going to festivals, the festival-goers are able to cultivate more of their authentic selves by repeatedly transcending the social norms (Kim and Jamal 2007).

The concept existential authenticity has been used by other authors in the past (Trilling 1972;

Berger 1973; Taylor 1991; Golomb 1995). Existential authenticity refers to the special state of

‘Being’ where one is true to oneself (Berger 1973) and one behaves in accordance to this (Schlegel et al. 2011). Berger (1973) added that existential authenticity acts as a treatment to the loss of “true self” in the modern Western society in public spheres and public roles. Therefore, this indicates that

existential authenticity is not concerned with whether or not the toured object is real. In fact, Wang (1999) suggests that in searching for tourist experiences, which are existentially authentic, the individuals are more concerned with the activities that trigger an existential state of ‘Being’.

According to Steiner and Reisinger (2006), existential authenticity is a product of the philosophy related to the meaning of being human, being happy and being oneself (Kierkegaard 1985; Sartre 1992; Heidegger 1996; Nehemas 1999).

Authenticity is often associated with making oneself as one wants to be (Kierkegaard 1985), one’s well-being (Bettencourt and Sheldon 2001) and one’s positive self-esteem (Goldman and Kernis 2002). According to Kierkegaard (1985) an individual has to be in touch with his/her inner self, knowing himself/herself, having an awareness of his/her identity and then living according to this sense of his/her self. It is thought that, only then, an individual can experience authenticity. Sartre (1992) said that when an individual is faced by different possibilities, it is up to him/her to avow his/her will in the choices he/she makes. According to Sartre (1992), reality is in fact insignificant and what is significant is how people live their lives so that they experience an authentic existence.

Wang (1999) associated existential authenticity with activity. He identified that the identity of an individual is created and reaffirmed when the individual visits places which are associated with the past. To this, Kirillova and Lehto (2015) added that existential authenticity is fostered in places representing luminal zones where social norms seem to be temporarily suspended, thereby providing a suitable environment for individuals to act their authentic selves and to attain liberation.

Similarly, Brown (1996) articulated that an existential authenticity is triggered when someone is having a good time, whereas Pons (2003) suggested that this is triggered when one is bodily involved with the world. These authors placed substantial significance on ‘activity’. As individuals engage in non-usual activities, they free themselves from the constraints of the everyday life, and this makes them feel more themselves (Wang 1999). Existential authenticity can be manifested in many situations as compared to object authenticity (Handler and Saxton 1988; Crang 1996; Wang 1999). The importance of existential authenticity here is crucial as it demonstrates how this can be categorised as being a human activity, which creates opportunities for experiencing the meaning of being human (Steiner and Reisinger 2006).

Heidegger (1996) viewed existential authenticity as concerning human authenticity. He used the term authenticity to point out that an individual is being himself/herself existentially. For Heidegger (1996), an individual can be existential by existing according to his/her nature, which in fact transcends the everyday activities or behaviour or the thought about one’s self. He described existential authenticity as being experience-oriented whereby the existential self is momentary and not permanent. Based on this thought, Heidegger (1996) suggested that someone can only be momentarily authentic in different situations. This is comparable to what some scholars have been saying relating to authenticity arising from the search for new experiences outside the daily routine (Turner 1973; Handler 1986; Brown 1996), allowing the individual to distance him/her from norms

and view life from another perspective (Turner 1973). Furthering this, Brown (1996) stated that tourists enjoy non-ordinary activities which free them from the constraints of their everyday life. As such, the new experience is thought to bring about the authenticity of the individual. Put in another way, when the individual is coping with his/her everyday life, he/she is thought to be inauthentic.

Heidegger (1996) placed significant emphasis on the meaning of being human. To him, being human means to have possibilities or opportunities and to have the capacity to choose among these.

Steiner and Reisinger (2006) emphasised that when talking about authenticity, one should always remember that it is about free choices, and it is not about maintaining old traditions or cultures. Kim and Jamal (2007) also supported this view by saying that the participants in their research were free from the everyday constraints where their behaviours were not governed by social norms or regulations of the daily living. This liberation was thought to enable them to experience an authentic self instead of being lost in public spheres and public roles.

Steiner and Reisinger (2006) acknowledged that some individuals desire to have a common or shared experience, whereas others crave to have a unique experience. A collective participation in rituals, where groups of individuals join together during an event to share their feelings of closeness, solidarity and unity, can also confer an authentic experience (Fine and Speer 1997).

Likewise, MacCannell (1976, p.187) indicated that “an authentic experience involves…

participation in a collective ritual”. As each individual’s involvement offers him/her unique possibilities, each of them has the ability to see the world through a unique perspective (Heidegger 1996). As such, the uniqueness of the possibilities flowing from those unique perspectives is thought to be the basis of authenticity. This view is comparable to Cohen’s (1979) stance that different individuals undergo different experiences, and these have different meanings for visitors or the society.

2.4.2.4.1 The dimensions of existential authenticity

Wang (1999) has stated that existential authenticity can be split into two dimensions: intra-personal and inter-personal authenticity. Intra-personal authenticity is concerned with the ‘bodily feelings’

for example relaxation, refreshment, entertainment, sensual pleasures, sensation-seeking, play, excitement and so on (Lett 1983; Cohen 1985; Mergen 1986; Veijola and Jokinen 1994; Wang 1999). These bodily pleasures can also include features of a ritual (Graburn 1983). Bodily experience, for example during hiking in the Adirondacks and rock climbing in the Red River Gorge, were seen to include the physical effects of sun, rain, wind, muscle ache and the texture of the trail or rock (Rickly-Boyd 2012; Vidon 2015). The bodily feelings may also include hardship, fatigue, and trouble (Digance 2003; Lulk 2012) as can be experienced during a pilgrimage which includes the physical act of walking. The pilgrimage can therefore be seen as a transformed journey filled with personal meaning (Digance 2006; Shepherd 2015) with the body aspect consisting of the sensual as well as the symbolic. Wang (1999) articulated that feelings, pleasures and other bodily

such bodily feelings, making the authentic self, can only be investigated for a very short period of time and it can be achieved through peak experiences including the body constraints present in the journey.

Intra-personal authenticity involves the “self-making” which is the motivation behind the travel.

Giddens (1990) has stated that many people get a feeling of loss in their routine lives. Therefore, for such a person to be their authentic self, they have to turn to travel to get out of their mundane lives.

Being away from one’s mundane life is an opportunity to discover one’s self. This implies that the act of walking during pilgrimage offers the potential for the discovery of self. The discovery of self itself may be seen an essential element of acquiring existential authenticity (Noy 2004; Shaffer 2004). In addition, the individual overcomes new challenges posed during the trip and this in turn allow him/her to find his/her new self (Yi et al. 2017). Yi et al. (2017) also added that there are two levels to the intra-personal authenticity. On the one hand, on a lower level, intra-personal authenticity is achieved when the body is freed from limitations and self-control imposed by one’s routine life, on the other hand, on a higher level it is achieved through extraordinary or extra-mundane experiences, for example by engaging in an adventure, leading to self-satisfaction and self-realisation.

The second dimension, inter-personal authenticity, includes ‘family ties’, for example where the family plans a holiday together to strengthen their ties and experience an authentic togetherness.

Inter-personal authenticity also includes communitas. Communitas is categorised by ‘liminality’

which refers to any condition outside the day-to-day life (Turner 1974). It is contended that liminality during a pilgrimage allows for a new identity to be created and achieved since the pilgrim experiences a unique state of being free from his/her mundane life as well as to find his/her authentic self (Wang 1999; Kim and Jamal 2007). Communitas occurs among pilgrims who, during their journey and at the sacred site, deal with each other as social equals on grounds of their common humanity. This collectiveness involved in pilgrimage is capable of being a transformative experience for a person, thereby bringing awareness and clarity to one’s beliefs, faith, customs and role in life (Mazumdar and Mazumdar 2004). According to Turner and Turner (1978), this applies to both pilgrims and tourists as their journeys can be seen as a rite of passage, or a quasi-pilgrimage. While existential authenticity can be seen as having hedonic characteristics (Wang 1999), it may also exhibit eudaemonic characteristics. For instance, leaving behind one’s luxurious life, career, health to live on limited finance away from family (Kirillova and Lehto 2015) may promote one’s self-sufficiency and autonomy (Rickly-Boyd 2012) thereby making existential authenticity more attainable. As per Kim and Jamal (2007), existential authenticity is mostly associated with experiences which confer meaning, for example friendship and communal bonding, as opposed to seeking pleasure-seeking experiences.