49 (C,E) 42 (C,E) 32 42 32
5.1 Expectations of workload
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UNIT 4 INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ORGANISATION
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• Discuss organizational politics
• explain organizational cultures
• examine organizational environments
• analyse information system
• discuss information system department
• explain organizational levels and information requirements.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Organizations and Information Systems
Information systems and organizations influence one another. Information systems are built by managers to serve the interests of the business firm. At the same time, the organization must be aware of and open to the influences of information systems to benefit from new technologies.
The interaction between information technology and organizations is complex and is influenced by many mediating factors, including the organization‘s structure, business processes, politics, culture, surrounding environment, and management decisions (see Figure 4.1). You will need to understand how information systems can change social and work life in your firm. You will not be able to design new systems successfully or understand existing systems without understanding your own business organization.
In contemporary systems there is a growing interdependence between a firm’s information systems and its business capabilities. Changes in strategy, rules, and business processes increasingly require changes in hardware, software, databases, and telecommunications. Often, what the organization would like to do depends on what its systems will permit it to do.
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Fig. 4.1: The interdependence between Organisation and Information system
3.1.1 What is an Organization?
An organization is a stable, formal social structure that takes resources from the environment and processes them to produce outputs. This technical definition focuses on three elements of an organization. Capital and labour are primary production factors provided by the environment. The organization (the firm) transforms these inputs into products and services in a production function. The products and services are consumed by environments in return for supply inputs (see Figure 4.2).
An organization is more stable than an informal group (such as a group of friends that meets every Friday for lunch) in terms of longevity and routineness. Organizations are formal legal entities with internal rules and procedures that must abide by laws. Organizations are also social structures because they are a collection of social elements, much as a machine has a structure—a particular arrangement of valves, cams, shafts, and other parts.
This definition of organizations is powerful and simple, but it is not very descriptive or even predictive of real-world organizations. A more realistic behavioural definition of an organization is that it is a collection of rights, Privileges, obligations, and responsibilities that are delicately balanced over a period of time through conflict and conflict resolution (see Figure 4.3).
In this behavioural view of the firm, people who work in organizations develop customary ways of working; they gain attachments to existing relationships; and they make arrangements with subordinates and superiors about how work will be done and the amount of work that will be done.
47 Figure 4.2: The Technical Microeconomic Definition of the Organization
In the microeconomic definition of organizations, capital and labour (the primary production factors provided by the environment) are transformed by the firm through the production process into products and services (outputs to the environment). The products and services are consumed by the environment, which supplies additional capital and labour as inputs in the feedback loop.
The behavioural view of organizations emphasizes group relationships, values, and structures.
Figure 4.3: The Behavioural View of Organizations
3.1.2 Feat ures of Organizations
All modern organizations have certain characteristics. They are bureaucracies with clear-cut divisions of labour and specialization.
Organizations arrange specialists in a hierarchy of authority in which everyone is accountable to someone and authority is limited to specific actions governed by abstract rules or procedures. These rules create a system of impartial and universal decision making. Organizations try to hire and promote employees on the basis of technical qualifications and professionalism (not personal connections). The organization is devoted to the principle of efficiency: maximizing output using limited inputs. Other features of organizations include their business processes, organizational culture, organizational politics, surrounding environments, structure, goals,
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constituencies, and leadership styles. All of these features affect the kinds of information systems used by organizations.
Routines and Business Processes
All organizations, including business firms, become very efficient over time because individuals in the firm develop routines for producing goods and services. Routines - sometimes called standard operating procedures - are precise rules, procedures, and practices that have been developed to cope with virtually all expected situations. As employees learn these routines, they become highly productive and efficient, and the firm is able to reduce its costs over time as efficiency increases. For instance, when you visit a doctor‘s office, receptionists have a well-developed set of routines for gathering basic information from you; nurses have a different set of routines for preparing you for an interview with a doctor; and the doctor has a well-developed set of routines for diagnosing you.
3.1.3 Organizational Politics
People in organizations occupy different positions with different specialties, concerns, and perspectives. As a result, they naturally have divergent viewpoints about how resources, rewards, and punishments should be distributed. These differences matter to both managers and employees, and they result in political struggle for resources, competition, and conflict within every organization. Political resistance is one of the great difficulties of bringing about organizational change, especially the development of new information systems. Virtually all large information systems investments by a firm that bring about significant changes in strategy, business objectives, business processes, and procedures become politically charged events.
Managers that know how to work with the politics of an organization will be more successful than less-skilled managers in implementing new information systems.
3.1.4 Organizational Culture
All organizations have bedrock, unassailable, unquestioned (by the members) assumptions that define their goals and products. Organizational culture encompasses this set of assumptions about what products the organization should produce, how it should produce them, where, and for whom. Generally, these cultural assumptions are taken totally for granted.
3.1.5 Organizational Environments
Organizations reside in environments from which they draw resources and
49 to which they supply goods and services. Organizations and environments have a reciprocal relationship. On the one hand, organizations are open to, and dependent on, the social and physical environment that surrounds them.
Organizations must respond to legislative and other requirements imposed by government, as well as the actions of customers and competitors.
On the other hand, organizations can influence their environments. For example, business firms form alliances with other businesses to influence the political process; they advertise to influence customer acceptance of their products.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the role of information systems in helping organizations perceive changes in their environments and also in helping organizations act on their environments. Information systems are key instruments for environmental scanning, helping managers identify external changes that might require an organizational response.
Environments generally change much faster than organizations. New technologies, new products, and changing public tastes and values (many of which result in new government regulations) put strains on any organization‘s culture, politics, and people. Most organizations are unable to adapt to a rapidly changing environment. Inertia built into an organization‘s standard operating procedures, the political conflict raised by changes to the existing order, and the threat to closely held cultural values inhibit organizations from making significant changes. Young firms typically lack resources to sustain even short periods of troubled times. It is not surprising that only 10 per cent of the Fortune 500 companies in 1919 still exist today.
Figure 4.5: Environments and Organizations have a Reciprocal Relationship
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Environments shape what organizations can do, but organizations can influence their environments and decide to change environments altogether.
Information technology plays a critical role in helping organizations perceive environmental change and in helping organizations act on their environment.
Fig. 4.6: Levels in an Organisation
Business organizations are hierarchies consisting of three principal levels:
senior management, middle management, and operational management.
Information systems serve each of these levels. Scientists and knowledge workers often work with middle management.
3.1.6 Wha t is an Information System?
An information system can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect (or retrieve), process, store, and distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization. In addition to supporting decision making, coordination, and control, information systems may also help managers and workers analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new products.
Information systems contain information about significant people, places, and things within the organization or in the environment surrounding it.
By information we mean data that have been shaped into a form that is meaningful and useful to human beings. Data, in contrast, are streams of raw facts representing events occurring in organizations or the physical environment before they have been organized and arranged into a form that people can understand and use.
51 A brief example contrasting information and data may prove useful.
Supermarket checkout counters scan millions of pieces of data from bar codes, which describe each product. Such pieces of data can be totalled and analyzed to provide meaningful information, such as the total number of bottles of dish detergent sold at a particular store, which brands of dish detergent were selling the most rapidly at that store or sales territory, or the total amount spent on that brand of dish detergent at that store or sales region
Fig. 4.7: Approaches to study of information Systems
The study of information systems deals with issues and insights contributed from technical and behavioural disciplines.
3.1.7 The Information Systems Department
The information systems department consists of specialists, such as programmers, systems analysts, project leaders, and information systems managers.
Programmers are highly trained technical specialists who write the software instructions for computers.
Systems analysts constitute the principal liaisons between the information systems groups and the rest of the organization. It is the systems analyst‘s
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job to translate business problems and requirements into information requirements and systems.
Information systems managers are leaders of teams of programmers and analysts, project managers, physical facility managers, telecommunications managers, or database specialists. They are also managers of computer operations and data entry staff. Also, external specialists, such as hardware vendors and manufacturers, software firms, and consultants, frequently participate in the day- to-day operations and long-term planning of information systems.
In many companies, the information systems department is headed by a chief information officer (CIO). The CIO is a senior manager who oversees the use of information technology in the firm. Today‘s CIOs are expected to have a strong business background as well as information systems expertise and to play a leadership role in integrating technology into the firm‘s business strategy. Large firms today also have positions for a chief security officer, chief knowledge officer, and chief privacy officer, all of whom work closely with the CIO.
The chief security officer (CSO) is in charge of information systems security for the firm and is responsible for enforcing the firm‘s information security. Sometimes this position is called the chief information security officer (CISO) where information systems security is separated from physical security. The CSO is responsible for educating and training users and information systems specialists about security, keeping management aware of security threats and breakdowns, and maintaining the tools and policies chosen to implement security.
Information systems security and the need to safeguard personal data have become so important that corporations collecting vast quantities of personal data have established positions for a chief privacy officer (CPO). The CPO is responsible for ensuring that the company complies with existing data privacy laws.
The chief knowledge officer (CKO) is responsible for the firm‘s knowledge management program. The CKO helps design programs and systems to find new sources of knowledge or to make better use of existing knowledge in organizational and management processes.
End users are representatives of departments outside of the information systems group for whom applications are developed. These users are playing an increasingly large role in the design and development of information systems.
53 In the early years of computing, the information systems group was composed mostly of programmers who performed highly specialized but limited technical functions. Today, a growing proportion of staff members are systems analysts and network specialists, with the information systems department acting as a powerful change agent in the organization. The information systems department suggests new business strategies and new information-based products and services, and coordinates both the development of the technology and the planned changes in the organization.
3.2 Organizational Levels and Information Requirements
Understanding the various levels of an organization is essential to understand the information required by the users who operate at their respective levels.
The following diagram illustrates the various levels of a typical organization.
Fig. 4.8: Organizational Levels and Information Requirements
3.2.1 Operati onal management level
The operational level is concerned with performing day to day business transactions of the organization.
Examples of users at this level of management include cashiers at a point of sale, bank tellers, nurses in a hospital, customer care staff, etc.
Users at this level use make structured decisions. This means that they have defined rules that guide them while making decisions.
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For example, if a store sells items on credit and they have a credit policy that has some set limit on the borrowing. All the sales person needs to decide whether to give credit to a customer or not are based on the current credit information from the system.
3.2.2 Tactical Management Level
This organization level is dominated by middle-level managers, heads of departments, supervisors, etc. The users at this level usually oversee the activities of the users at the operational management level.
Tactical users make semi-structured decisions. The decisions are partly based on set guidelines and judgmental calls. As an example, a tactical manager can check the credit limit and payments history of a customer and decide to make an exception to raise the credit limit for a particular customer. The decision is partly structured in the sense that the tactical manager has to use existing information to identify a payments history that benefits the organization and an allowed increase percentage.
3.2.3 Strat egic Management Level
This is the most senior level in an organization. The users at this level make unstructured decisions. Senior level managers are concerned with the long-term planning of the organization. They use information from tactical managers and external data to guide them when making unstructured decisions.
Transaction Processing System (TPS)
Transaction processing systems are used to record day to day business transactions of the organization. They are used by users at the operational management level. The main objective of a transaction processing system is to answer routine
questions such as:
• How many printers were sold today?
• How much inventory do we have at hand?
• What is the outstanding due for John Doe?
By recording the day to day business transactions, TPS system provides answers to the above questions in a timely manner.
For example, banks that give out loans require that the company that a person works for should have a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with
55 the bank. If a person whose employer has a MoU with the bank applies for a loan, all that the operational staff has to do is verify the submitted documents. If they meet the requirements, then the loan application documents are processed. If they do not meet the requirements, then the client is advised to see tactical management staff to see the possibility of signing a MoU.
Examples of transaction processing systems include:
• Point of Sale Systems: records daily sales
• Payroll systems: processing employees’ salary, loans management, etc.
• Stock Control systems: keeping track of inventory levels
• Airline booking systems: flights booking management
Fig.4.9: Fig. 4.1: A Payroll TPS
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A TPS for payroll processing captures employee payment transaction data (such as a time card). System outputs include online and hard-copy reports for management and employee paychecks.
Management Information System (MIS)
Management Information Systems (MIS) are used by tactical managers to monitor the organization's current performance status. The output from a transaction processing system is used as input to a management information system.
The MIS system analyzes the input with routine algorithms i.e. aggregate, compare and summarizes the results to produced reports that tactical managers use to monitor, control and predict future performance.
For example, input from a point of sale system can be used to analyze trends of products that are performing well and those that are not performing well. This information can be used to make future inventory orders i.e. increasing orders for well-performing products and reduce the orders of products that are not performing well.
Examples of management information systems include:
• Sales management systems: they get input from the point of sale system
• Budgeting systems: gives an overview of how much money is spent within the organization for the short and long terms.
• Human resource management system: overall welfare of the employees, staff turnover, etc.
Tactical managers are responsible for the semi-structured decision. MIS systems provide the information needed to make the structured decision and based on the experience of the tactical managers, they make judgement calls i.e. predict how much of goods or inventory should be ordered for the second quarter based on the sales of the first quarter.
Decision Support System (DSS)
Decision support systems are used by senior management to make non-routine decisions. Decision support systems use input from internal systems (transaction processing systems and management information systems) and external systems.
57 The main objective of decision support systems is to provide solutions to problems that are unique and change frequently. Decision support systems answer questions such as:
i. What would be the impact of employees' performance if we double the production lot at the factory?
ii. What would happen to our sales if a new competitor entered the market?
Decision support systems use sophisticated mathematical models, and statistical techniques (probability, predictive modelling, etc.) to provide solutions, and they are very interactive.
Examples of decision support systems include:
i. Financial planning systems: it enables managers to evaluate alternative ways of achieving goals. The objective is to find the optimal way of achieving the goal. For example, the net profit for a business is calculated using the formula Total Sales less (Cost of Goods + Expenses). A financial planning system will enable senior executives to ask what if questions and adjust the values for total sales, the cost of goods, etc. to see the effect of the decision and on the net profit and find the most optimal way.
ii. Bank loan management systems: it is used to verify the credit of the loan applicant and predict the likelihood of the loan being recovered.
Competitive advantage of information
Competitive advantage is a position that makes a business more profitable than its competitors. For example, producing products at a lower cost than your competitors make you more profitable.
Information systems have the capacity to help an organization into such a position. They do so in the following ways:
Operational excellence: operational excellence seeks to improve the operations of the business. Let's take an example of a retail store. A retail store can use information systems to automatically place an order with a supplier once the inventory level reaches the re-order limit. This ensures that the retail store never runs out of inventory and customers can always count on it to find what they need.
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New business models, products, and services: let's continue with the example of a retail store. The retail store can develop a web based order system or smartphone application that clients can use to buy items from the comfort of their homes or wherever they are. The order system can be linked to a delivery business and have support for online payments. This is a new business model compared to customers walking in to make purchases versus doing it from web based or smartphone apps.
Improved supplier and customer relations: historical data is used to understand the needs of the customers and suppliers. This data is then used to create services and products that address the needs. This leads to long-term relationships with customers and business which puts an organization in a more profitable position.
Improved decision making: information is critical when making decisions.
Information systems if designed and operated efficiently that have all the characteristic of good information described in the above section. This enables an organization to make decisions that bring results.
Porter's Value chain
Think of a company such as Apple Inc. Why are they successful? Why do customers love and buy the iPhone? It is because the iPhone adds value to their lives. This is why Apple Inc. is a successful business. Value chain refers to activities that a company performs to create value for its customers.
The concept of a value chain was developed by Michael Porter. Porter's value chain has two activities namely;
• Primary activities: these are activities that are related to the creating products/services, marketing and sales, and support. Primary activities consist of inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service.
• Support activities: these are activities that support the primary activities.
Support activities consist of procurement (purchasing), human resource management, technological development and infrastructure.