Experience-based Learning

In peace education programmes for children, it is particularly important to consider children’s own experiences and knowledge about peace-related issues. Hägglund (2004) claims that current peace education under-represents some aspects of children’s perceptions, values and knowledge, including:

…the view of children as subjects and actors; the dynamic and strength in children’s collective construction of knowledge and value systems; the experience-based and situated analyses of what change is needed; the here and now perspectives of young human beings.

(Hägglund, 2004: 124)

The reason why these aspects are under-represented seems to be that adults and authorities find it difficult to put together children’s views, voices and stories into ‘systems of knowledge and values that make sense “from within” a particular childhood culture’ through understanding their social experiences which are part of their continuous acquisition of knowledge regarding peace (Hägglund, 2004: 125).

According to Oppenheimer, Bar-Tal and Raviv (1999: 5-6), there are several theoretical perspectives on children’s understanding of peace, conflict and war, and the development of their understanding, including cognitive-developmental, social learning, socialisation and ecological approaches. Each approach derives from a different conception of children’s learning processes (ibid: 6-7). According to the cognitive-developmental approach, children’s knowledge and understanding are developed through interaction with others and the environment, while ‘actively seeking information and new experiences’ (e.g. Piaget, 1932/1977). The social learning approach perceives children as relatively passive, being largely influenced by environmental factors which modify behaviour, along with some cognitive factors in learning (e.g. Bandura, 1977). The socialisation approach emphasises ‘the intergenerational transfer of particular values and norms’ from parents, schools and the media to children. The ecological approach stresses ‘children’s subjective experience and

understanding of the environment’ (e.g. Vygotsky, 1978) within their changing relationships with social (ecological) systems such as the family, school, community and culture.

On the other hand, all approaches share the belief that children’s knowledge, understanding and behaviour are directly related to the experience of individuals and their level of operational thinking. These approaches are therefore basically underpinned by personal development as a result of interaction between individual experience and socio-cultural environment. In this sense, peace education can influence individuals by providing them with opportunities to experience and explore different strategies of peace and to formulate their understanding, knowledge and attitudes, underpinned by the values of peace (Oppenheimer, Bar-Tal and Raviv, 1999: 8). Thus, considering the importance of children’s experience and knowledge in the process of learning, the method of experience-based learning is often adopted in peace education programmes.

In particular, Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory mentioned above has influenced the method of active experience-based learning to promote children’s social and moral development, and has provided understanding of the process of learning and the importance of an adequate learning environment (Johnson and Johnson, 1996: 463-4; Harris and Morrison, 2003: 146). From the viewpoint of cognitive constructivism, Piaget considers that children’s perception and their understanding of society are built up through their interaction with the environment, and their capacities are developed towards more logical or internally consistent ways of understanding and adapting to society (Barrett and Buchana-Barrow, 2005:

181). This perspective has its underlying assumption that ‘what individuals think and believe, about social arrangements as well as about natural phenomena, is a function of the capacities they have developed to reason about and make sense of available evidence’ (ibid: 181).

While the importance of experience-based learning for children’s understanding of peace, conflict and war is supported by the theories above, Bar-Tal (2002: 33) states that experience-based learning is the key method for acquiring values, attitudes, perceptions, skills,

and behaviour in peace education, because this ‘internalization cannot be achieved by merely preaching’ but by practising these aspects of peace, while suggesting that the process of learning should reflect the objectives of peace education, such as tolerance, co-operation, peaceful conflict resolution, multiculturalism, non-violence and respect for human rights.

Similarly, Staub (2002: 80-1) promotes ‘learning by doing’ as an important element of peace education, in order that children develop caring and helpful attitudes through engaging in action on others’ behalf. A study by Pettigrew (1998: 76), based on inter-group contact theory, has also found that people’s experience of close and long-term inter-group contact has positive effects on their relationships and the reduction of prejudice, in particular, when the contact situation provides people with ‘the opportunity to become friends’. Therefore, ‘the opportunity to become friends’ can be seen as an important element, in addition to the four key conditions for ensuring positive effects of inter-group contact: equal group status, common goals, inter-group co-operation and institutional support (Allport, 1954: 281;

Pettigrew, 1998: 66). Agreeing with the viewpoint of Pettigrew (1998), Kadushin and Livert (2002: 122) consider the formation of cross-group friendships a major consequence of experiencing inter-group contact, based on an opportunity of getting acquainted with each other. While children’s friendships or school lives are often divided by race, class, ability and gender in the current conditions in schools, Kadushin and Livert (2002: 120, 122) believe that cross-group friendships can contribute towards creating conditions for peace.

Moreover, from a general educational viewpoint, the importance of using methods based on experience, participation and sharing in the process of active learning is addressed by Dewey (1916/2005: 95), who states that students can only learn to think when dealing with problems and seeking solutions at first hand, rather than through listening to ready-made subject matter.

Dewey (1916/2005: 53) promotes experience-based learning, especially in the context of education for democracy, based on his belief that only education can create an alternative to the principle of external authority, which is rejected by a democratic society. Dewey

(1916/2005: 47) states that education is ‘reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience.’ According to Dewey (1916/2005: 83-4), the nature of experience consists of an active element of ‘trying’ and a passive element of ‘undergoing’ the consequences, and the combination of activities of trying and undergoing leads to the recognition of meaning in experience. The experience of connecting an action and its consequences enables people to refer their own actions to those of others, and consider the actions of others to give direction to their own actions (ibid: 53). This ability to make a connection between an action and its consequences can be significantly important in the process of acquiring behaviour, attitudes and values in peace education, since it allows students to consider possible consequences of their violent behaviour or conflicts.

In the process of experience-based learning, Dewey (1916/2005: 86) also addresses the need for reflection, which is the recognition of ‘the relation between what we try to do and what happens in consequence,’ because experience is only meaningful when the causes of our actions are consciously connected with their consequences of activity and are reflected back into changes of interpretation of these actions (ibid: 83). Reflection also allows people to accept responsibility for the consequences caused by present action (ibid: 87). The importance of continuous action and reflection is also emphasised by Freire (1972: 72-3), as the source of knowledge and creation, to raise critical consciousness, overcome the limitation and transform reality. With these educational effects, the use of experience-based learning in peace education can help people recognise and take responsibility for the consequence of their actions, while developing the skills and attitudes to handle difficult situations without resorting to violence.

Possible forms of peace education using experience-based learning include games, audio-visual methods and drama (Galtung, 1975: 321-5). Galtung (1975: 325) suggests that drama can be used to explore various aspects of peace and conflict in the contexts of different social forms, and the use of another form of drama with no endings: open-ended theatre,

which invites the public to join in and act out various continuations in dealing with current conflict-related issues, introduced by professional actors. Debates and discussion can also be useful in talking about peace-related issues, and schools can organise talks by those who are involved in peace-related work, whilst children can visit people or places to learn more about peace (e.g. see Davies, Harber and Yamashita, 2005: 143).