Experimental technique-mental training system

In the progressive relaxation programme the subject listened to a taped voice working its way through different parts of the body, relaxing one muscle after another. The duration of the programme was about 6 min. While still in a relaxed mood, they were asked to open their eyes and observe a videotape with top table

156 Fallby

tennis players performing forehand top-spins. The subjects had before the recording of the videotape themselves chosen their favourite players, watched the video and been instructed what cues to focus on and pay attention to. The tape was about 5 min in duration. Following the videotape was a 5 min imagery session where the subjects were instructed to imagine themselves, in a successful way, execute the same technical skills they had seen the top-players perform. In a focused state of mind the subjects then moved from the mental training room to the playing arena, warmed up and began physical practice. Two of them performed traditional exercises with the purpose of training forehand top-spins, while the third subject practised multi-balls with the coach. After around 10 min of practice the coach gave verbal feedback on the subjects performance on this session for about 5 min. This was followed by a change of players so that all of the subjects came to get feedback from the coach at the “multiball table”, and an equal amount of time to play regular exercises.

3 Results

In the “multi-ball training” the subjects were asked to focus on the feeling of the performance experienced while performing the techniques. This was considered more important than the quantitative number of accurate shots made (Table 2).

Qualitative results, using EMG were generated according to Janson’s (1995) protocol described in the introduction. Table 3 explains how the tension in extensor carpi ulnaris, that is an antagonist in the forehand top-spin technique, varied through the study. Two critical points of tension were identified in the exercise that was played; “a” the hit of the ball on the first forehand topspin, and “b” the hit of the second ball at the second top-spin. The subjects were also asked to assess the performance on the two tasks in this exercise.

A self-assessment task was also given after each meeting when multi-ball and EMG measures were taken. It was designed to assess the players’ technique and “touch” of the ball in the last three training sessions by means of two different questionnaires. The questionnaires contained twelve variables, but only three of them were relevant to the study; forehand top-spin on backspin, (a) down the line, and (b) crosscourt, and (c) forehand top-spin on block, free. These variables

Table 2. Accuracy in multi-ball practice (maximum score is 10) and subjective assessment of the feeling experienced during the performance (scale ranging from 1, “very bad” to 5, “very good”). Empty boxes mean that the subject was absent

Technical rehearsal and imagery system for table tennis 157

showed a pattern among the three cases. In self-assessment of the technique the mean increased from 3.67 to 4.33, and the assessment of the feeling/experience rose from 3.78 to 4.56.

The interview that concluded the study was summarised as follows:

Case study A was very interested in the study itself and had some thoughts that could be used to develop a technique further. He concluded that he had made progress during the study by way of safety of the shots practised, in technique, but mostly in his self-awareness. He was much more aware of the importance of his feeling and experience of the performance during technical skills practice.

Case study B felt more relaxed in his movements during performance and through that felt his performance was more consistent, hitting more balls on the table with the same speed as before. He found the combination of video modelling and imagery inspiring and motivating and he wanted to try it in combination with competition situations. He believed that technical skills training in table tennis was outdated.

Case study C found the video modelling good and motivating, but had problems with imagery at the start of the study. He wanted to integrate video modelling with the traditional training sessions and thought that a video camera should film the practice sessions so that the tape could provide visual feedback after training. He found that his technique had improved during the study and that it had been more enjoyable to practice with the new training system.

All three subjects were positive about the thought of integrating the training system into their regular practice. They stressed the importance of the motivation of the coach and all practical details surrounding the new methods of practising.

Table 3. The EMG measurements of the extensor carpi ulnaris (antagonist), given in % MVC, on the two identified critical points in the exercise played, and the self-assessment on the performance of the task, (scale ranging from 1 to 5). Empty boxes mean that the subject was absent

158 Fallby

4 Discussion and Conclusions

The results of the present study suggest that the technical-mental training system is a promising complement to traditional technical training in forehand top-spin in table tennis. The application of this training system in the field is very appropriate and it could give coaches an alternative in the training and learning situation.

Concerning the quantitative measurements, some results showed inconsistent patterns. First, case A showed a decrease in all measures following baseline 1. This can be explained through heavy weight-training conducted directly before the measures that he thought influenced his behaviour a great deal. Second, case B showed an increase in tension on baseline 2. This suggested that the effect of the training system had disappeared, but the self-assessments and the results with the multi-balls show opposite results. The conclusion from this could be that self- awareness is an important part of technical training. Case B had a better feeling of his technique after participating in the training system. According to Janson’s (1995) protocol, his tension should also stay at the lower level. One explanation why this did not occur is that case B had been training for many years with a high tension “built in to” his technique. When the inducement from imagery and relaxation in the training system faded away, so did the relaxed technique. This suggests that a good “education” in the difference between tense and relaxed states during technical performance is of vital importance. Thus, a long-term practice plan on how to replace the tension would be the best way to deal with the situation. The EMG should be included in the plan as a biofeedback instrument. Janson (1995) reported that when a new, more “relaxed”, technique is learned the athlete feels a lack of control over the performance. This feeling has to do with the former tension that now is replaced with the relaxed and more “smooth” technique. The result is a non-interference from disturbing thoughts and tensed muscles. The coach of technical skills in table tennis should note the difference between the athletes “feeling”, or experience of the performance and the actual physical performance, to reach a more effective learning situation.

Case C did not participate in two of the measurements; this was attributable to the location of this study in the field. Injuries, training camps and other

circumstances can be disruptive. One important factor in this context is, before starting a new training method the coach or the researcher should be aware of the practical issues concerning all different aspects. The coach and the athletes should be motivated, accurately introduced to the theoretical and practical details, ready to accept new working conditions during practice, and have all new training equipment needed (VCR, tape recorder, relaxing room, and so on).

The coach has a very important place in the training system, as in all learning and training situations. He should work together with a “resource-person” (sport psychologist or other appropriate person) when introducing this type of training system. This is because of the change that is impending, and the extra work that it entails. It may be dangerous to overload the coach and therefore the theoretical parts of the training system should be introduced by a person that is experienced in sport psychology and the theoretical background.

Technical rehearsal and imagery system for table tennis 159

The importance can be stressed by the example of case C, who did not improve much during the first three weeks of the intervention. Later in the interview he explained that he had problems with the imagery technique. This corresponded to earlier findings that suggested that the imagery technique was crucial for the outcome of the training system (Fallby, 1995).

Two of the subjects suggested that a video camera could be set up during practice sessions to give visual feedback of the performance. This idea was also suggested in a pilot study, but could not be realised in the present study. Visual feedback is an important factor when comparing current with earlier performances. It is important that the coach can edit the tape so that any negative stimulus can be left out. This was supported by McCullagh (1993) who proposed that visual feedback is effective in the correction of technical skills, but not in their detection.

A summary of a promising foundation to start a new approach to technical training is presented in Figure 1. Hopefully it offers a contribution to a growing body of knowledge that shows that technical-mental training is an alternative to traditional technical training.

160 Fallby

5 Acknowledgement

The author wishes to thank Fredrik Wetterstrand, CIV, Halmstad University, Sweden, for his help in carrying out the EMG testing.

6 References

Bump, L.A. (1989) American Coaching Effectiveness Program. Sport Psychology. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.

Clarys, J.P. and Cabri, J. (1993) Electromyography and the study of sports movements: A review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11, 379–448.

McCullagh, P. (1993) Modeling: learning, developmental, and social psychological considerations, in Handbook of Research on Sport Psychology (eds R.N.Singer, M.Murphey and L.K.Tennant) Macmillan, New York.

Fallby, L.J. (1995) Psychoneuromuscular theory—en studie i praktisk tillämpning av mental träning. Halmstad University, Sport Psychology, 21–40.

Fallby, L.J. (1997) Teknisk-mental träning: En träningsmodell för att förbättra tekniska färdigheter i bordtennis. C-thesis, Halmstad University, Pedagogy, 41–60.

Gray, S.W. (1990) Effects of visuomotor rehearsal with videotaped modeling on

racquetball performance of beginning players. Perceptual and Motor skills, 70, 379– 385.

Hall, E.G. and Erffmeyer, E.S. (1983) The effect of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal with videotaped modeling on free throw accuracy of intercollegiate female basketball players. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 343–346.

Janson, L. (1995) Avspänd teknik, in SVEBI:s årsbok (ed. G.Patriksson) Reprocentralen Lund, pp. 63–74.

Suinn, R.M. (1972a) Behavioral rehearsal training for ski racers: brief report. Behavior

Therapy, 3, 210–212.

Suinn, R.M. (1972b) Removing emotional obstacles to learning and performance by visuo- motor behavior rehearsal. Behavior Therapy, 3, 308–310.

Weinberg, R.S., Seabourne, T.G. and Jackson, A. (1982) Effects of visuo-motor bahavior rehearsal on state-trait anxiety and performance: Is practice important? Journal of

Sport Behavior, 5, 209–219.

Zhang L-W., Ma Q-W., Orlick, T. and Zitzelsberger, L. (1991) The effect of mentalimagery training on performance enhancement with 7–10-year-old children. Unpublished Report; Beijing Institute of Physical Education and University of Ottawa.

161