Externalizing outcomes

antisocial behaviour (Bartko & Eccles, 2003; Holland & Andre, 1987; Mahoney, 2000; Mahoney & Stattin, 2000) and externalizing behavior (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a; Bartko & Eccles, 2003). Findings regarding the association between SL participation and alcohol and drug use have produced inconsistent results. Some research links increased rates of alcohol and drug use with SL participation (sports involvement only; Eccles & Barber, 1999; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b), whereas others suggest lower rates are associated with SL participation (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a; Fredricks & Eccles, 2006b).

A recent study by Fredricks and Eccles (2006a) examined the relationships between different high school extracurricular contexts (i.e., sports, school clubs, prosocial activities) and various developmental outcomes. The sample consisted of a diverse sample of African American and European American youths who were followed for five waves of data collection from 1991 to 1999. The size of the sample varied from 1480 to 912 participants.

The longitudinal nature of the study allowed researchers to control for prior levels of the dependent variables (i.e., academic adjustment, depression, internalizing and externalizing behavior, alcohol and drug use, and civic engagement) along with gender, race, SES, and achievement related motivation (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a). This design thus provides a conservative estimate of the effects of extracurricular participation as it controls for many of the self-selection biases that are often noted as a concern in research on extracurricular activities. EAP was measured dichotomously

(i.e., yes – no) and was used to predict current adjustment levels as well as adjustment one year after high school.

Analysis of covariance and regression results indicated that high school EAP predicted several indicators of academic, psychological, and behavioral adjustment (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006a). Some of the major findings from the study included: (a) Participation in high school clubs and sports activities predicted higher grades and educational expectations; (b) sports involvement was predictive of lower levels of depression, internalizing behavior, and higher levels of self-esteem; and (c) being involved in different types of extracurricular activities was associated with positive adolescent and young adult adjustment. Consistent with other research on

extracurricular activity participation (e.g., Eccles & Barber, 1999; Marsh, 1992; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002), the majority of effects were generalizable across race and gender.

As with other longitudinal studies, the study by Fredricks and Eccles (2006a) has numerous strengths (e.g., controlling for selection effects, ethnic and economic diversity). Overall positive effects were found for EAP. One area of improvement highlighted by the authors emphasized expanding conceptualizations of EAP beyond dichotomous measures of involvement, and the current investigation has attempted to do so by gathering information on the extent of and the experiences involved in SL participation.

Mahoney and Stattin (2000) conducted a study which examined the effects of different types of leisure on antisocial behavior (e.g., lying, stealing, drinking; Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). This Swedish study compared levels of antisocial behavior for youth

who participated in leisure activities that emphasized structure (i.e., sports, music, drama, etc.) versus those that were in a leisure context that was relatively unstructured (i.e., a government sponsored youth centre). The study also assessed the peer group characteristics and parent-child relationships of the participants in each group. The authors note that SL activities typically involve regular participation, rule-guided engagement, direction by an adult figure, an emphasis on skill development that is continually increasing in complexity and challenge, sustained attention, and clear feedback performance. Given these characteristics, it was expected that youth in SL activities would have lower rates of antisocial behavior, better parent-child

relationships, and more involvement with non-deviant peers.

Using parent education as a covariate, comparisons were made between individuals who participated in SL activities and those who did not participate. A similar dichotomous comparison was made for the unstructured context (Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). The results indicated that, for both boys and girls, participation in SL activities was linked to lower antisocial behavior, whereas involvement in unstructured activities showed the opposite pattern. In terms of the parent-child relationship, parents tended to monitor and trust their children less when they were involved in unstructured activities. When children were involved in structured activities, parents tended to trust them more and support their involvement in SL activities. In terms of peer relationships, it was found that adolescents involved in structured activities reported fewer deviant peers, whereas those involved in the unstructured context reported older friends who

also tended to stay out late, perform poorly in school, and who had been caught by the police.

This study by Mahoney and Stattin (2000) empirically investigated the relationship between the structured aspect of leisure and various outcomes.

Unfortunately, the study does not establish the relevant processes that contribute to the various positive outcomes of SL. It also does not address the question of whether there are negative aspects of too much structure. In the process of advocating for increased involvement in SL activities, these authors point out that it is important that participants freely choose to participate in SL activities, as forced participation could undermine intrinsic motivation (i.e., wanting to participate for inherent satisfaction) and the

enjoyment adolescents get from the activity. This aspect of SL warrants more attention. It is very possible that intrinsic motivation and enjoyment are, as identified by Mahoney and Stattin (2000), key components to the success of SL activities. It is also possible that when these aspects are absent, negative consequences could occur. Measures of intrinsic motivation and activity enjoyment are included in the present study to investigate these possibilities.