Extra-sentential code-switching: Types and frequency analysis

Extra-sentential CS was excluded from the distributional and correlation analyses in relation to social factors because of its tendency to be stored and retrieved as one single unit

regardless of the number of words it contains or speakers’ L2 proficiency. However, its occurrence can nevertheless offer insights into first-generation Thai immigrants’ CS

behaviours. In this section, I describe types and frequency of extra-sentential CS found in this study, with the informants’ social characteristics brought into consideration when possible.

Extra-sentential CS occurred 68 times in the entire corpus across the speech of 17 (out of 36) informants (Speakers 1A, 1B, 2B, 3A, 4B, 5A, 5B, 7A, 8A, 8B, 9A, 9B, 13A, 13B, 14B, 17A and 17B). It occurred the most frequently in the speech of Speaker 3A (19 times)

75

and the least in the speech of Speakers 1A, 1B, 5B, 9A, 9B and 13A (once each)⁵. The distribution of each type of extra-sentential CS, i.e. negative/affirmative markers, formulaic expressions, interjections and idioms, is given in Figure 3.9. It must be emphasised that the data must be approached cautiously since each informant did not spend the same amount of time talking, which means that those from long conversations might have more opportunity to produce extra-sentential CS.

Figure 3.9: Distribution of extra-sentential CS types

Figure 3.9 shows that negative markers and formulaic expressions contribute the most, and almost equally, to the occurrence of extra-sentential CS instances in this study.

Interjections and idioms, on the other hand, occur at a much lower rate. The stark contrast between the rates of negative markers and formulaic expressions, and interjections and idioms, indicates that that the former two are more likely to occur in first-generation Thai immigrants’ intragroup talk.

In Section 3.3, I have provided an example of each type of extra-sentential CS from my data. Some more examples of formulaic expressions and idioms are given here since they occurred in more various forms than negative markers (no) and interjections (mostly oh my God/my God). Examples 3.13 to 3.15 illustrate a variety of English formulaic expressions in the informants’ Thai speech other than buy one get one free in Example 3.12.

5 This skewed distribution of extra-sentential CS across the 17 informants is another reason why the correlation analysis could not be performed.

Negative markers…

Formulaic expressions 40% (N = 27) Interjections 13% (N = 9)

Idioms 6%…

76 Example 3.13

1 8A: bò thank you wà sân […]

no thank you say that No, thank you, [I] said.

Example 3.14

1 2B: nûat kô mi lăi khanăeng à thoe

massage also have many branch PP you There are many kinds of massage, you know.

2 mi nûat- nûat- nûat happy ending

have massage massage massage happy ending [There] are massage- massage- happy ending massage,

3 nûat bàep sàbai sàbai

massage like relaxing relaxing relaxing massage.

Example 3.15

1 17A: […] pho thŭeng wan kòet kháo kô tho pai when reach day be born she then call go On her birthday, [I] called to

2 happy birthday mâe

happy birthday mother [say] happy birthday to my mother.

Examples 3.16 to 3.18 demonstrate the use of English idioms in Thai speech, other than jack of all trade but master of none in Example 3.10.

Example 3.16

1 3A: oe pai pai ma ma kháo bòk (.) ma loei ná

INTERJ go go come come he say come already PP Yeah, eventually he [= 3A’s husband] said “just come [to England] already, 2 now or never (hahahaha)

now or never

[it’s] now or never.”

77 Example 3.17

1 3A: […] kháo bòk wà tông khon thî chûe wà he say that only people that name that He said that only people who are called

2 cream of the cream thâo nán thî chà khâo máhălai dâi cream of the cream only that will enter university can cream of the cream can go to university.

Example 3.18

Speaker 3A talks about the Thai restaurant where she used to work.

1 3A: […] tàe kô thŭeng bòk wà thî rán Thai House nîa but then reach say that at restaurant Thai House PP […] but that’s why [I] said that at Thai House restaurant,

2 fair and square loei làe […]

fair and square already PP [it was] fair and square.

One striking finding is that while negative markers, interjections and other formulaic expressions tended to occur across the 17 informants, all idioms were produced by only one speaker: Speaker 3A. Closer examination revealed that length of conversation is unlikely to be the reason behind Speaker 3A’s characteristic use of English idioms, since it is similar to that of the other 16 informants. To elaborate, the length of the conversation in which Speaker 3A participated is 46 minutes and 33 seconds, while that of Speakers 1A and 1B (who

produced one instance of extra-sentential CS each) is 45 minutes and 30 seconds; that of Speaker 2B (who produced five instances of extra-sentential CS) is 42 minutes and 48 seconds; and that of Speakers 17A and 17B (who produced three and nine instances of extra-sentential CS, respectively) is 49 minutes and 13 seconds. This shows that Speaker 3A did not have much more time than other informants to produce idioms. Thus, I moved on to scrutinise the social characteristics of Speaker 3A in contrast to those of the other 16 informants.

Speaker 3A was 49 years old and had been living in England for 25 years at the time of the study. She received tertiary level education prior to migration, and self-rated as having high proficiency in all four English language skills. While her age, educational attainment and English language proficiency characteristics resemble those of the other informants who produced extra-sentential CS, the amount of time she has spent in England is uniquely higher than that of the other informants, which ranges between five months and 13 years. This tentatively suggests that Speaker 3A’s length of residence may play a certain role in her

78

production of English idioms, which did not occur in the speech of the other 16 informants.

More research is required to establish the importance of the length of residence variables on the use of idioms in the context of CS.