f Characterization

4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Discussions in this unit will be on a perennial field of international relations; a concept which pre-dates the arrival of the discipline as a distinct course of study. While not attempting to present the entire history of diplomacy, this unit will yet expose the fledging student to the core of the concept of diplomacy, in other words what it is, what it does and how it does it. More is also said on the concept under the D- Concepts.

2.0. OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i) Define the concept of diplomacy.

(ii) List the problems of international diplomacy.

(iii) Outline the approaches to solving the problems of diplomacy 3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1. What is Diplomacy?

Diplomacy according to Sir Ernest is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments’ of independent states. There is a sublime distinction between foreign policy and diplomacy; the one entails the substance of foreign relations while the other is the process by which policy is carried out. Thus it is the purpose of diplomacy to make available the means and personnel through which

34

foreign policy is executed. In this regard we see that foreign policy provides the substance while diplomacy the method of attaining that substance.

Foreign policy is based upon a general conception of national requirements... diplomacy on the other hand is not an end but a means not a purpose but a method. It seeks, by the use of reason, conciliation and the exchange of interests to prevent major conflicts arising between sovereign states (Palmer and Perkins, 2007).

The attainment of constitutional independence does not really open up a state to participation in international relations. Rather the state has acquired the capacity to engage in acts open to sovereign states such as relating with other states through diplomatic representatives, entering into foreign agreements, joining international organisations, campaigning for certain goals, influencing other states e.t.c. Conversely before these processes can take place, as a pre-condition, other states must be willing to relate with the emergent state internationally. This latter process consists of two preliminary steps; recognition and the establishment of diplomatic relations and a third step which involves the establishment of diplomatic mission. This last step will be taken if it is expected that relations between the two states will be cordial.

Recognition is the notice to the other state and the world, that in the view or opinion of the recognising state the other state has met the requirements for normal international activity. Diplomatic relations which follows shortly after, entails direct official contact.

The absence of diplomatic relations can lead states to ignore each other. Finally diplomatic relations will facilitate the establishment of diplomatic missions between both countries. The diplomatic system thus enables states to have contacts with other states and so to advance and protect their interests at the international level.

3.1.1 Origin of Diplomacy

Organised diplomatic activity began with the relations among the city-states of ancient Greece. The Romans did not contribute much to diplomacy but they enhanced international law. In the middle ages, diplomacy was denoted by the study and preservation of archives rather than international negotiation. It was in the late Middle Ages, in Italy that modern diplomacy took off. The first known permanent mission was that established at Geneva in 1455 by Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan. The next century saw the establishment by the Italian city-states permanent embassies in London and Paris.

35

For nearly three centuries afterwards, the concepts of diplomacy was not standardised and diplomacy remained an activity of the court and its major thrust remained the propagation of the interest of the monarch.

The industrial, American, and French revolutions in the late eighteenth century opened the door for a new phase of diplomacy. Kings were eclipsed by democratic institutions and the task of the diplomat was now how to represent a people rather than a person.

However remuneration remained poor as diplomacy was still a trade of the wealthy class.

However the congress of Vienna made worthwhile contributions toward the standardisation of the field. These rules were embodied in the Reglement of March 19, 1815 and in regulations of the congress of Aix-La-Chapelle in 1818. It established four ranks of representatives: 1) Ambassadors, papal legates and papal nuncios; 2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary; 3) ministers resident, later merged with the second rank and; 4) charges d’affaires.

The advent of the so-called new diplomacy in the nineteenth century saw the advancement of new methods which were defined in many international agreements.

Much discussion on diplomacy is factored around the concept of the new as illustrated by Condoleezza Rice’s ‘transformational diplomacy’ and Hillary Clinton’s outlining in the 2010 Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review of a new diplomacy based on the creation of a ‘global civilian service’. Just as the electric telegraph was seen as moving the parameters of diplomatic practice in the nineteenth century, so the employment of the Worldwide Web and social networking sites by foreign ministries are readily identified as symbolic of a ‘new statecraft’. This emphasis on ‘newness’ stresses the importance of discontinuity developments in patterns of communication and communications technologies are central to the practice of diplomacy. One aspect of this has been the preoccupation with soft power and public diplomacy. In the 21st century, fibre optic and satellite technologies, mobile communications, joins with a more active electronic media and social networking to present a mix of new constraints and opportunities for the conduct of diplomacy.

Furthermore, changing modes of communication have been major conditioning factors in the operation of diplomacy creating both constraints and opportunities. Symbolized by terms such as virtual diplomacy and e-diplomacy, the growth of rapid, real time communication, the electronic media and social networking creates a vastly different communications environment from that of even a decade ago. Here, the two central issues are the need to understand better the implications of these developments and

36

responding to them in ways that meet the expectations of policy practitioners and publics.

Communication is the essence of diplomacy, determining its purpose and operational modes. Each phase in the long evolution of diplomacy has therefore been marked by the need to adjust to and seek to shape the dominant features of the communication and information environment. Harold Nicolson (1939) notes three developments in the nineteenth and twentieth century which have had significant impact on the theory and practice of diplomacy. These are the growing sense of the community of nations; the importance of public opinion and the rapid increase in communication.

3.1.2. Functions of diplomats

The major functions of the diplomat are to execute the foreign polices of his home state and also to keep his government informed of major developments in and around his station. He must understand and assimilate the mentality of his home state and thenceforth, in his country of posting, make known these desires and hopes. However for clarity sake, the tasks of the diplomat can be divided into four: Representation, Negotiation, Reporting and the protection of the interests of the nation and citizens in foreign lands.

• Representation:

A diplomat is first and foremost a country’s representative in this capacity to be effective he must cultivate a broad range of social network. That is with his fellow diplomats, influential individuals and articulate groups in the country.

• Negotiation:

Negotiation is the pursuit of agreement by compromise and direct personal contact. By nature diplomats are negotiators. However the developments in communications technology and the growth of multilateralism have somewhat eroded their influence nonetheless their value still remains inestimable.

• Reporting:

Reports are facts gleamed from their country of posting. Such reports maybe on legislative programmes, public opinion, market conditions, finance or any other happening that catches his fancy.

37

• Protection of Interests:

A diplomat must at all times seek the furtherance of the interests of his home state.

Despite the seemingly selfish hue of this view it is the foundation of diplomacy. More specifically, the diplomat must ensure the protection of businessmen and other nationals of his own country resident in his country of posting.