Material and Methods
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor
Leaves value -0.86984 0.25277 -0.20636
Young leaves value 0.58033 -0.44709 -0.63805
Flower value 0.93238 0.15511 -0.23777
Pulp value 0.62370 -0.50286 0.46812
Almonds value 0.29745 0.73056 0.43828
Bark value 0.68350 0.69686 -0.16137
Root value 0.54044 0.59601 0.18818
Root sucker value -0.68746 0.71058 -0.02466
Butter value -0.52962 -0.41520 0.71973
Fruit value 0.71140 0.48398 0.29639
Timber value -0.79060 0.56042 -0.19240
Following the first two axis 1, social groups, were able to be divide into four categories (Fig. 2): • G1: Ditamari and Waama social groups that were characterized by high value for leaves, root-
sucker, butter and timber;
• G2: Natimba social group that were distinguished by high value for butter.
• G3: Anii, Kotocoli and Fulani social groups that were characterized by high value for young leaves, pulp, bark and root;
PP
* Nagot * Kotocoli * Anii * Fulani * Natimba * Waama * DitamariFigure 2. Social groups’ categorisation according P. butyracea plant parts use values taking into account the first two axes. * represents the site of social groups in the axes system.
However, in general, social groups that were living in the same geographical area shared similar P.
butyracea parts values. It was the case of Anii, Kotocoli and Fulani in Bassila district and Ditamari and
Waama in Toucountouna district. This social groups discrimination with the first two axes (axis 1 and axis 2) was similar to those presented by the axes 1 and 3.
Intercultural Convergence of Specific uses of P. butyracea parts
Bark was reported most often to cure digestive system disorders (with 90% of stomach pain) by the Anii, Nagot, Waama and Ditamari respondents with respective IUV equalled to: 0.303, 0.316, 0.267 and 0.300. Concerning the other social groups, bark was reported most for infections (69.5% of malaria), genitourinary system disorders (78.3% of irregular menses) and circulatory system disorders (57.1% of anaemia) treatments by respectively Kotocoli, Fulani and Natimba respondents with IUV equalled to 0.400, 0.250 and 0.500. Nagot also have the highest use value for bark and root, two the most sensitive parts for the plant survival.
PPV of flower, pulp, young leaves, bark and fruit
PPV of leaves, timber root sucker
PPV of young leaves PPV of bark, root and butter Z1 (45.8%) Z2 (29.2%)
G1
G2 G3 G4As regards roots, it was reported for digestive system disorders (67.6% of stomach pain) treatments the Anii, Waama and Ditamari respondents with respective IUV equalled to 0.435, 0.700 and 0.500. Genitourinary system disorders (68.7% of irregular menses) were reported cured by root by the Kotocoli, Nagot and Fulani respondents, IUV equalled to 0.750, 0.455 and 1.00 respectively.
Leaves specific uses were more diversified among social groups than bark and root. Indeed, apart from their use in wound healing (especially male circumcision wound healing) by the Waama and Ditamari groups with respective IUV equalled to 0.444 and 0.429. Leaves were also used in digestive system disorders treatment by the Kotocoli and Fulani respondents, IUV equalled to 0.750 and 0.333 respectively. Young leaves use was reported only by the Anii, Kotocoli and Fulani respondents, all living in Bassila district, for their lactogenic effects, immune reinforcement and dentition at the newborn. The IUV were 0.833, 0.944 and 1.00 respectively.
As regards pulp, it was reported for cosmetics uses instance its use in chiropodist and local soap preparation by the Kotocoli, Waama and Ditamari groups, IUV equal to 0.667, 1.000 and 1.000 respectively. Because of its tartness, pulp was also reported for digestive system disorders treatment such as bloated stomach and constipation by the Nagot and Fulani respondents with respective IUV equalled to 0.750 and 0.500.
Processing of P. butyracea almonds into butter was a common practice for all social groups, in the two districts, mainly for consumption. That is why we did not report this use. It was also the case the species’ timber use in carpentry. However, butter is particularly indicated by the Waama, Ditamari and Natimba respondents for cosmetics uses instance local soap preparation (IUV = 0.941, 1.00 and 1.00 respectively). In the same way, timber was reported by the Waama and Ditamari groups for oral hygiene. (IUV = 1.00).
Flower use was limited to Bassila district social groups and reported for various specific uses: such as lactogenic effects (Kotocoli and Fulani, IUV equal to 1.000), digestive system disorders treatment (Anii and Nagot, IUV equal to 0.400 and 0.500) and magico-mystic uses.
Root-suckers were particularly reported by Toucountouna social groups for oral hygiene (IUV = 1.00). Almonds use was indicated for various and diversified specific uses for ill-defined symptoms treatment, having full of pep, digestive system disorders treatment, muscular-skeletal system disorders, respiratory system disorders and inflammations.
Whole fruit use was limited to few social groups and did not present any convergence concerning specific use. In the Kotocoli group, whole fruit was reported for magico-mystic uses whereas in Nagot group, it was mentioned in digestive system disorders, genitourinary system disorders, ill-defined symptoms treatment and magico-mystic uses. As for Fulani, whole fruit use was reported only for genitourinary system disorders treatment.
Discussion
The results of our results of present study highlighted the parts of the species local people are likely to most use and also categorised the main social groups according to the plant parts importance. The Natimba respondent group mentioned the lowest average of total uses for P. butyracea parts. This result can be explained by the specialization of the Natimba group in magico-mystics practices while the Waama and Ditamari are recognized for their ability in diseases treatment in Toucountouna district (field data).
Analysing P. butyracea parts importance, differences were observed between the social groups. Their cultural difference may explain the different knowledge levels; different ethnic groups have their own ideas about which plant parts can be used for what purpose (Kristensen & Lykke, 2003). Moreover, different communities may develop unique plant knowledge as they are exposed to diverse environments, ailments, and cultural practices (Leonti et al., 2003).
In general, social groups were divided into four categories according to the geographical areas where they are living. This result would mean that with time, social groups that are living together exchange their knowledge. These knowledge exchanges can occur through friendships, inter-ethnical marriages, etc. Local knowledge can indeed combine the insights of ancestral knowledge, practical experience, the knowledge of other neighbouring local peoples, regional scholarly traditions, and scientific or official knowledge (Nesheim et al., 2006) acquired through, for example, agricultural extension officers, (Gadgil et al., 2000; Dhillion & Gustad, 2004).
IUV was used to measure the species parts importance for specific uses. Relative to a specific use, the highest value of IUV of a plant part is the specific use for that this part is most reported by respondents of each social group. High value of IUV generally indicates therefore a certain consensus in the use of the part for the specific use in question within the social group. When for several social groups indicate, a given plant part presents the highest value of IUV is high for a specific use, this cross-checking can be synonymous of reliability of a disease treatment. The reliability of the disease treatment is all the greater when IUV of the plant part for a specific use is high for social groups that are not living in the same geographical area. This comparative method allows the selection of indigenous medicinal plants parts for phytochemical and biological/pharmacological studies.
IUV is also useful in determining the cultural importance of a particular plant part for a social group in a specific usage category. For example, the Ditamari group have an IUV = 0.429 for P. butyracea’s leaves that they use to bandage wound after circumcision a biennial ceremony. Circumcision is for this group an act that is deeply well established in its tradition because it is tied to the initiation of the young man (up to 20 years old).
During the study, we had wanted to assess the present-day usage of P. butyracea products by the different sociocultural groups by measuring the quantities harvested or consumed (e.g., Houghton & Mendelsohn, 1996). In so doing, we would have made a difference between past and actual use and knowledge of uses, contrary to most ethnobotanical studies that assume implicitly that informants’ answers are representative of present-day usage of plant products (Byg & Balslev, 2001b). Combination of the species parts quantities harvested or consumed and of the resource availability would give information on the species conservation status. Unfortunately, this was not possible for two main reasons. Firstly, the use of some plant parts is seasonal (e.g. flower, whole fruit, young leaves) and may be greater at a particular time of the year. Secondly, as the study was concerned only one plant species, the time which has elapsed between two uses was long (several months or years), especially when the informant is not a traditional specialized healer. Therefore, it was difficult or even impossible for us to follow uses and quantify the plant parts used without conducting more in depth studies of respondent P. butyracea use over a prolonged period of time. Although this study does not attempt to calculate harvest rates for any of this species parts, it does address issues of the species use simply by looking at what plant parts are used for various activities.
Conclusion
Pentadesma butyracea is a multipurpose tree that is used in various ways by Bassila and
Toucountouna districts people. A quantitative ethnobotanical approach close to informant consensus allowed allocating a value to each species part. Social groups that are living in the same geographical area shared similar value of the species parts. Several parts of the species were most reported for the same specific use by different social groups (high value of IUV), even if these groups were not living in the same geographical area.
References
Adu-Tutu, M., Afful, Y., Asanti-Appial, K., Liberman, D., Hall, J.B., and Elvin-Lewis, M., 1979. Chewing stick usage in southern Ghana. Econ. Bot. 33: 320-328.
Albuquerque, U.P., and Lucena, R.F.P., 2005. Can apparency affect the use of plants by local people in tropical forests? Interciencia. 30: 506-511.
Albuquerque, U.P., Lucena, R.F.P., Monteiro, J.M, Florentino, A.T.N., and Almeida, C.F.C.B.R., 2006. Evaluating two quantitative ethnobotanical techniques. Ethnobot. Resear. Applic. 4: 51-60.
Avocèvou, C., 2005. Pour une exploitation durable des produits forestiers non ligneux : effet du ramassage des fruits de Pentadesma butyracea sur sa régénération naturelle et analyse financière de la commercialisation de ses amandes et de son beurre dans l’arrondissement de Pénessoulou au Bénin. Mémoire de DEA, FSA/UAC, Abomey-Calavi, Bénin, 104 p.
Begossi, A., Leitão-Filho, H.F., and Richerson, P.J., 1993. Plant uses in a Brazilian coastal community (Búzios Island). Journ. Ethnobiol. 13: 233-256.
Burton, M., and Kirk, L., 1979. Sex differences in Maasai cognition of personality and social identity.
Byg, A., and Baslev, H., 2001a. Diversity and use de palms in Zahamena, eastern Madagascar. Biod.
Cons. 10: 951-970.
Byg, A., and Balslev, H., 2001b. Traditional knowledge of Dypsis fibrosa (Arecaceae) in Eastern Madagascar. Econ. Bot. 55(2): 263–275.
Collins, S., Martins, X., Mitchell; A., Teshome, A., and Arnason, J.T., 2006. Quantitative ethnobotany of two east Timorese cultures. Econ. Bot. 60(4): 347–361.
Cook, F.E.M., 1995. Economic botany data collection standard. H.D.V. Prendergast, ed. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom.
Cunha, L.V.F.C., and Albuquerque, U.P., 2006. Quantitative ethnobotany in an Atlantic Forest fragment of northeastern Brazil – implications to conservation. Environ. Monito. Asses. 114: 1-25. Dhillion, S.S., and Gustad, G., 2004. Local management practices influence the viability of the baobab (Adansonia digitata) in different land use types, Cinzana, Mali. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 101: 85–103. Elvin-Lewis, M., Hall, J.B., Adu-Tutu, M., Afful, Y., Asanti-Appial, K., and Liberman, D., 1980. The dental health of chewing-stick users of southern Ghana: Preliminary finding. Journ. Preven. Dent. 6: 151-159.
Fernandez, E.C., Sandi, Y.E., and Kokoska, L., 2003. Ethnobotanical inventory of medicinal plants used in the Bustillo province of the Potosi Department, Bolivia. Fitoter. 74: 407–416.
Frei, B., Baltisberger, M., Sticher, O., and Heinrich, M., 1998. Medical ethnobotany of the Zapotecs of the Isthmus-Sierra (Oaxaca, Mexico): Documentation and assessment of indigenous uses. Journ.
Ethnopharm. 62: 149–165.
Gadgil, M., Rao, S.P.R., Utkarsh, G., Pramod, P., and Chhatre, A., 2000. New meanings of old knowledge: The people’s biodiversity program. Ecol. Applic. 10(5): 1307–1317.
Galeano, G., 2000. Forest use at the Pacific Coast of Chocó, Colômbia: a quantitative approach.
Econ. Bot. 54: 358-376.
Georges, A., 1962. La classification des sols : la classification pédologique française. In : Cahiers
ORSTOM Série Pédologie, Classif. sols 3: 1-7.
Ghimire, S., McKey, D., and Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y., 2004. Heterogeneity in ethnoecological knowledge and management of medicinal plants in the himalayas of nepal: implications for conservation. Ecol. Soc. 9(3): 6.
Giday, M., Asfaw, Z., Elmqvist, T., and Woldu, Z., 2003. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. Journ. Ethnopharm. 85: 43–52.
Gomez-Beloz, A., 2002. Plant use knowledge of the Winikina Warao: the case for questionnaires in ethnobotany. Econ. Bot. 56: 231-241.
Heinrich, M., Ankli, A., Frei, B., Weimann, C., and Sticher, O., 1998. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc. Sci. Med. 47(11): 1859-1871.
Henerson, M.E., Morris, L.L., and Fitz-Gibbon, C.T., 1987. How to Measure Attitudes. SAGE Publications, Newbury Park, USA.
Henfrey, T.B., 2002. Ethnoecology, resource use, conservation and development in a Wapishana
community in the South Rupununi, Guyana. dissertation. University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
Houghton, K.T., and Mendelsohn, R., 1996. An economic analysis of multiple-use forestry in Nepal.
Ambio 25: 156–159.
Houngbédji, A., 1997. Étude phytotechnique, écologique et des technologies endogènes de transformations de Pentadesma butyracea, espèce des galeries forestières de la région de Bassila. Mémoire de DEAT, Lycée Technique Agricole Médji, Sékou, Bénin.
INSAE (Institut National de la Statistique et de l’Analyse Economique), 2002. Troisième recensement
général de la population et de l’habitation, [CD-Rom] Cotonou, Bénin.
Jenik, J., 1994. The Dahomey-Gap: an important issue in African phytogeography. Mémo. Soc.
Johns, T., Kokwaro, J.O., and Kimanani, E.K., 1990. Herbal remedies of the Luo of Siaya District, Kenya: establishing quantitative criteria for consensus. Econ. Bot. 44: 369-381.
Kristensen, M., and Balslev, H., 2003. Perceptions, use and availability of woody plants among the Gourounsi in Burkina Faso. Biod. Cons. 12: 1715-1739.
Kristensen, M., and Lykke, A.M., 2003. Informant-based Vvaluation of use and conservation preferences of savanna trees in Burkina Faso. Econ. Bot. 57(2): 203-217.
Lee, R.A., Balick, M.J., Ling, D.L., Sohl, F., Brosi, B.J., and Raynor, W., 2001. Cultural dynamism and change: An example from the Federated States of Micronesia. Econ. Bot.. 55(1): 9-13.
Leonti, M., Fernando, R.R., Sticher, O., and Heinrich, M., 2003. Medicinal flora of the popoluca, mexico: a botanical systemical perspective. Econ. Bot. 57(2): 218-230.
Luoga, E.J., Witkowski, E.T.E., and Balkwill, K., 2000. Differential utilization and ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo forest reserve and surrounding communal cands, Eastern Tanzania. Econ. Bot. 54(3): 328-343.
Lykke, A.M., 2000. Local perceptions of vegetation change and priorities for conservation of woodysavanna vegetation in Senegal. Journ. Environ. Manag. 59: 107–120.
Maikhuir, R.K., and Gangwar, A.K., 1993. Ethnobiological notes on the Khasi and Garo tribes of Maghalaya, northwest India. Econ. Bot. 47: 345-357.
Natta, A., Sinadouwirou, Th.A., Sinsin, B., and van der Maesen, L.J.G., 2003. Spatial distribution and ecological factors determining the occurrence of Pentadesma butyracea Sabine (CLUSIACEAE) in Bénin. In: Natta, A. (Eds) An ecological assessment of riparian forests in Benin: Phytodiversity,
phytosociology and spatial distribution of tree species. Wageningen University. Pays Bas, pp. 73-80.
Natta, A.K., Sinsin B., and van Der Maesen L.J.G., 2002. Riparian forests, a unique but endangered ecosystem in Benin. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 124: 55-69.
Nesheim, I., Dhillion, S.S., and Stølen, K.A., 2006. What Happens to Traditional Knowledge and Use of Natural Resources When People Migrate? Hum. Ecolo. 34(1): 99-131.
Phillips, O., and Gentry, A.H., 1993a. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: I. Statistical hypothesis tests with a new quantitative technique. Econ. Bot. 47: 15-32.
Phillips, O., and Gentry, A.H., 1993b. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: II. Additional hypothesis testing in quantitative ethnobotany. Econ. Bot. 47: 33-43.
Phillips, O.L., 1996. Some analytical methods in quantitative ethnobotany. In: Alexiades M. (Ed) Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research: a field manual. Advan. Econ. Bot. 10: 171–198. Prance, G.T., Balée, W., Boom, B.M., and Carneiro R.L., 1987. Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonian. Cons. Biol. 1: 296-310.
PRRF (Projet de Restauration des Ressources Forestières dans la région Bassila), 1998. Plan d’aménagement participatif de la forêt classée de Pénessoulou. 85 p. ONAB, GTZ-Luso consult DFRN, MDR. Cotonou, Bénin.
Sacandé, M., and Pritchard, H.W., 2004. Seed research network on African trees for conservation and
sustainable use. FAO. Rome, Italy.
Sinsin, B., and Sinadouwirou, Th., 2003. Valorisation socio-économique et pérennité du P. butyracea Sabine en galeries forestières au Bénin. Cah. Agric. 12: 1-5.
Torre-Cuadros, M.A., and Islebe, G.A., 2003. Traditional ecological knowledge and use of vegetation in southeastern Mexico: a case study from Solferino, Quintana Roo. Biod. Cons. 12: 2455-2476. Trekpo, P., 2003. Aménagement des Forêts Privées dans la Région de Bassila au Nord-Bénin. Projet Restauration des Ressources Forestières de Bassila. Bassila, Benin. 72 p.