Negative self-view, lack of trust in others, subsequent
apprehension about close relationships and high levels of distress
Orientation away toward help- seeking behavior
127 childhood will influence how an adult views themselves and their expectations of others in future relationship from adolescence and beyond (Schwartz & Buboltz, 2004).
Attachment theory is based on an evolutional framework which implies dating partners are attracted to each other by a sexual mating system which promotes proximity (i.e., closeness or intimacy) between partners which facilitates the formation of an attachment bond by allowing partners to test their relationship as a potential source of safety, or “safe haven” from which to explore a “secure base” (Hazen & Zeifman, 1994). Rich (2006) reported Attachment Theory is rooted in biology and the psychological component of the theory forms a psychodynamic model for the development of human personality and relationships which offers a theoretical framework in understanding how individuals construct and deconstruct their world and act upon the world as shaped by their emotional and cognitive images they hold of the world, which in turn, dictates how they should behave. Through this process, dating partners become “attached” to their partner and an act of abuse or violence on behalf of a perpetrator and the help-seeking behavior on behalf of a victim may threaten the security of a relationship which traces back to a fear of separation from parents or early caregivers (Schwartz & Buboltz, 2004). McClellan and Reed (2000) stated when a couple is separated or a relationship bond is threatened, jealousy, anger, anxiety and fear of abandonment may trigger intimate partner violence.
John Bowlby’s attachment theory has been considered a valid framework for the study of interpersonal and intrapersonal phenomena because it has been used to examine the association between individual differences in attachment style and the way people
relate to others and cope with stress from infancy throughout life (Huntsinger & Luecken, 2004; Mikulincer & Selinger, 2001). Schmidt et al. (2002) claimed attachment theory has been suitably applied to the construct of coping within a medical context. Schmidt et al. (2002) argued attachment theory best explains certain internal motivational factors involved in the help-seeking process. An insecure attachment style has been associated with maladaptive health behavior whereas a secure attachment style is considered an important inner motivational resource in the adaptation to chronic disease might be considered an important inner motivational resource in the adaptation to chronic disease (Schmidt et al., 2002).
Attachment theory has been instrumental in explaining why a male perpetrator of domestic violence might inflict harm onto a female victim based on his style of
attachment (Wekerle & Wolfe, 1998). Bowlby’s attachment theory depicts individual differences which can explain why some people become the perpetrator of abuse or violence in a romantic relationship (Gormley, 2005). In a study conducted by Wekerle and Wolfe (1998), male offending behavior was found to be associated with an
interaction between a history of early childhood maltreatment and an avoidant attachment style among dating partnerships. Attachment theory has formed a basis for understanding conflict, anxiety, grief, and loneliness within the context of a romantic relationship
(Gormley, 2005). Gormley (2005) concluded, “attachment anxiety” might be suggestive of a pattern of affect deregulation and jealousy leading up to the psychological and physical violence of an intimate partner. However, a gap in the literature was found that
129 considered the attachment style of victims of intimate partner violence and taking into account the effect of differences in gender and sexual orientation.
Attachment style is associated with help-seeking behavior because attachment theory defines processes by which one forms mental representations of self and others, a process by which one develops beliefs and expectations about social interactions building a foundation for social behavior (Rich, 2006). One’s style of attachment plays a role in shaping perceptions and attitudes toward help-seeking which in turn influences the decision whether to seek help or not. According to Attachment Theory, one’s attachment style will determine whether one will seek help or avoid it. Collins and Feeney (2000) as cited in Moller, Fouladi, McCarthy and Hatch (2003), reported among those with a self- reported secure style of attachment will be more likely to seek and secure help in times of need and report satisfaction with their social support network than those with insecure attachment styles (p. 354). A positive connection between a male or female victim of dating violence in a collegiate heterosexual or same-sex relationship will require an affectional bond between them which promotes a sense of psychological security (Cotterell, 1992). Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) reported an attachment anxiety- avoidance dimension which will determine a level of closeness or interdependency on others. The attachment anxiety-avoidance dimension represents the degree to which one approaches or avoids intimacy and interdependence on others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). According to Collins and Feeney (2000), attachment style determines where an individual will rank on the attachment-avoidance dimension and this theory may predict four possible help-seeking patterns:
1. Securely attached individuals will rank low in attachment related anxiety and avoidance and be more likely to seek help or support.
2. Individuals with an insecure preoccupied attachment style will rank high in attachment anxiety and low in avoidance and because of their desire for closeness and dependence, they will tend to seek help, but fear rejection.
3. Individuals with an insecure dismissing attachment style will rank low in attachment related anxiety but high in avoidance as they tend to value self-reliance and view helping relationships as unimportant.
4. Individuals with an insecure fearful/avoidant attachment style will rank high in both attachment anxiety and avoidance as they desire closeness in relationships and approval of others but will tend to avoid help-seeking behavior because of the fear of being rejected and
difficulty trusting others to care for them (pp. 1067-1070).
Wekerle and Wolfe (1998) conducted a study which explored the association between attachment style of female victims of intimate partner violence and help-seeking behavior and found females with an avoidant attachment style less likely to seek help due to the inability to convey their distress which otherwise promotes helping behaviors from others. Wekerle and Wolfe also reported male victimization from female partners was
131 predicted by an interaction of an anxious/ambivalent or dismissing attachment style and maltreatment associated with a heightened fear of abandonment and low self-esteem.
Previous research has demonstrated a link between attachment style and help- seeking behavior among individuals experiencing a variety of medical problems and mental health issues. Bowlby emphasized a need for attachment relationships which are activated by events such as illness and stated, “When we have a baby . . . someone close to us departs or dies, a limb is lost or sight fails. . .” and illness is often accompanied by an increased need or wish to be close to another” (Hunter & Maunder, 2001).
Attachment theory holds that when individual experiences a stressful event, such as an act of dating violence, an “attachment system” is activated and the coping response will depend on a person’s style of attachment (Kemp & Neimeyer, 1999). Huntsinger and Luecken (2004) stated among the substance abuse literature, a secure attachment style was associated with those who demonstrated better health seeking behaviors (coping) than insecure avoidant or preoccupied attachment styles. Attachment theory has been applied to understanding social support seeking processes and adjustment during
adolescence (Larose & Bernier, 2001). Bowlby’s theory of attachment is relevant to this proposed study because it has been instrumental in studying the development and function of romantic relationships between intimate partners and in understanding the dynamics between couples who experience domestic violence (Duemmler & Kobak, 2001). Therefore, it is the intent of this proposed study to apply Bowlby’s attachment theory to determine if differences exist between attachment style and help-seeking
behavior among male and female victims of dating violence in both heterosexual and same-sex relationships among a college population.
Bowlby’s Attachment System
In Bowlby’s famous work, Attachment and Loss (1973), Bowlby observed children who were separated from their parents frequently experienced intense distress and tried to regain their missing caregiver by crying, clinging, and searching for them (Fraley et al., 2005). Bowlby drew on the work of ethnologists who believed attachment behaviors were organized into an “attachment behavioral system” influenced by genetics, but sensitive and adaptable to environmental pressures. Weber (2003) reported this attachment behavioral system activates inherent, species-specific behavior, which results in a positive outcome. Thus, the attachment system represents a biologically based system of behaviors activated in times of stress or threat. Bowlby postulated this attachment system is part of a motivational system involved in the coping process (Schmidt et al., 2002).
Attachment theory posits human infants form and maintain primary relationships with caregivers early in life because they are physically and psychologically helpless for months after birth and their survival depends on it (Thompson & Cienchanowski, 2003). Bowlby theorized human beings are genetically programmed not only to become intimate with one another, but to “seek help” or support in times when the “heart is hurt” and in order to do this, the attachment system must be functioning normally (Cassidy, 2001). This attachment system is thought to be operating like other human systems such as those
133 which regulate reproductive behavior and feeding, but with a goal to monitor proximity between self and a caregiver (Fraley et al., 2005). Thus, in times of danger, stress or novelty (Crowell & Treboux, 1995), the primary goal of the attachment system is to gain and maintain proximity to an attachment figure or potential source of help when a situation demands it. Bowlby argued, the desire to maintain feelings of security is universal, though strategies (e.g., emotion-focused, support-seeking, distancing, etc.) may differ among individuals based on their attachment history (Cooper et al., 1998). Ainsworth ( 1989) and Collins and Feeney (2001) conceptualized help-seeking behavior as a function of an operational attachment system and considered it to be a basic process of functioning universal to human nature and irrespective of differences in constitution, culture or individual experience. Viewing help-seeking behavior from this perspective, it would appear little if any differences in help-seeking would exist between male and female victims of dating violence in collegiate heterosexual and same-sex relationships.
Individuals with a secure attachment style are believed to have normal
functioning attachment systems that are automatically activated in times of physical/and or psychological threat (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). These individuals are driven to maintain or restore proximity to those who can provide help or support in managing their distress (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). Weber (2003) suggested specific patterns of insecure attachment are formed by deficiencies in infancy and childhood, which adversely affect the development of healthy interpersonal relationships later in life.
Attachment theory holds an individual with either pursue proximity seeking behaviors (e.g., help-seeking) or engage in proximity avoidance (e.g., avoidance of help)
dependent on the configuration of one’s internal working models (Lopez et al., 1998). Help is secured when an attachment figure promotes attachment behaviors by being available, responsive, protective and comforting when a help-seeker encounters a stressor or experiences a threat (Crowell & Treboux, 1995). From Bowlby’s theory of attachment, differences in attachment style can at least partially account for differences in help-
seeking behavior.
In Bartholomew’s model of attachment, attachment styles are measured along two orthogonal dimensions: attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety (Berry et al., 2006). A person’s position on the attachment avoidance dimension indicates to what extent he or she will distrust another; strive to maintain behavioral independence, and emotional distance (Mikulincer, Shaver, Gillath, & Nitzberg, 2005). Similarly,
Mikulincer et al. (2005) reported one’s position on the attachment anxiety dimension indicates the degree to which he or she worries another will be available or unresponsive in times of need.
Attachment Styles and Help-Seeking Behavior
Among the medical and psychiatric literature, attachment styles have been positively correlated with help-seeking behavior. Lopez et.al (1998) reported those with an insecure attachment style as compared with those with a secure attachment style, inhibits a person from seeking help or interferes with a person’s ability to use help when it is offered (Coble, Gantt & Mallinckrodt,1996; Florian et al., 1995; Kobak & Sceery, 1988). Individuals with an insecure attachment style tend to view others as unreliable or
135 indifferent stemming from early interactions with caregivers that they are unavailable to them in times of need. According to attachment theorists (Florian et al., 1995; Koback & Screery, 1988; Wallace & Vaux, 1993), this perception leads to an avoidance of
disclosing problems to others and help-seeking behavior.
John Bowlby (1973) and Mary Satler Ainsworth (1989), founders of attachment theory, human infants are born into the world with a fundamental capacity to form a secure sense of self and the world through interaction with primary caregivers who are consistently accessible and responsive to bids of comfort and protection. As noted earlier, deficiencies in care giving during the formative years effect the development of viable relationships later in life (Bradford & Lyddon, 1994). Figure 3 depicts an interaction between an individual and primary attachment figures in the help-seeking process through three major stages of development (i.e., infancy, adolescence/young adulthood, and adulthood).
Attachment theory holds that infants are born into the world in a state of physical and psychological helplessness. Depending on the quality of interaction with the mother, the primary attachment figure in infancy, he or she will develop a secure or insecure style of attachment. By adolescence and young adulthood, an individual directs his or her attachment behaviors toward peers than parents (Cooper et al., 1998). However, the parent is never completely displaced as an attachment figure, but becomes what is called an “attachment figure in reserve” (p. 1380). It is believed by adulthood, most individuals will settle on a single romantic partner who will serve for years, if not the remainder of one’s life, as a primary attachment figure (p. 1380). Help-seeking behavior or avoidance
of help will be strongly influenced by style of attachment based on one’s previous attachment experiences. Figure 4 depicts the interaction between three major
developmental stages in an individual’s life, attachment styles formed by interactions with attachment figures, and the influence on help-seeking behavior. Solid lines in Figure 3 represent a secure attachment bond which characterizes individuals who are generally self-confident, socially skilled, and open to intimacy and closeness in relationships with others (Hazen & Shaver, 1987). Broken lines represent an insecure attachment bond which characteristic of individuals who generally lack self-confidence, worry about rejection and abandonment by others, are prone to bouts of jealousy and anger/hostility, and are uncomfortable with intimacy and closeness (Hazen & Shaver). Yet, at the same time, individuals who are insecurely attached tend to be dependent on others (Hazen & Shaver, 1987). For example, an individual with a preoccupied attachment style may tend to seek help (as indicated by a solid line), but simultaneously reject help or support (as indicated by a parallel broken line).
137
INSECURE---SECURE