0
Child
Nearest
Q
Q Comparison object
Furthest Q
Q Further
Results
The children's responses were categorized into 'near', 'further', and 'furthest' responses, as illustrated by Fig. 2, for each type of question. It could be argued that the nature of the children's responses is affected by whether they were tested on this small-scale distance experiment before the large-scale distance ex periment or after it. However, Chi square tests on both the
'nearest' and 'furthest' questions show that the order of testing did not significantly effect the distribution of responses (Nearest: X = 1.182, 2df; Furthest; X = 3.216, 2df). The results were therefore combined across order of testing in all further analysis. Table 2 shows the distribution of responses with order of testing.
It was hypothesized that the children's responses may be af fected by whether the comparison object was close to the child or not. Table 3 shows the distribution of responses according to the closeness of the child to the comparison object. Chi square tests showed that the distance of the child from the comparison object did not significantly effect the distribution of responses (Near ques tion X = 1.03, 2df; Furthest question; X^= 0.73, 2df), therefore the results were combined for all further analysis. The combined results can be seen in Table 4. Chi square tests were carried out to see whether the sex of the subjects affected their responses. For both 'nearest' and 'furthest' questions, the distribution of responses was not significantly different for boys and girls (Near est; X = 1.613, 2df; Furthest; X = 4.764, 2df). Table 5 shows the distribution of responses according to the sex of the subjects.
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Table 2 The distribution of responses with order of testing
Number of responses
Tested first Tested second
Near Further Furthest Near Further Furthest Nearest Question 37 8 3 40 7 1 Furthest Question 5 22 21 1 21 .. ... 26
Table 3 Distribution of responses according to the distance of the child from the comparison object.
Comparison object is Near to child
Response item is Response item isFar from child
Near Further Furthest Near Further Furthest "Nearest"
Question S8 7 3 39 8 1
"Furthest"
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Table 4 Combined Results
Item chosen is
Near Further Farthest
Nearest question 77 15 4
Table 5 The distribution of responses according to the sex of the subject.
Number of responses
Girls Boys
Near F urther Furthest Near F urther Furthest Nearest
Question 38 9 1 - 39 6 3
Furthest
Question 2 21 25 8 22 18
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The results were collapsed across sex in all further analysis. Were the children equally likely to be correct on each question? A bino mial test showed that significantly more correct responses were given to the ’nearest' question than incorrect responses (Z = -14.69, p<.001). However, the responses to the 'furthest' ques tion, showed that there was no significant difference between
'further' and 'furthest' responses (Binomial test: Z = -0.294), but significantly less near responses than other responses (binomial test: Z = -30.03, p<.00l). There are three possible hypotheses for the responses to the 'furthest' question, which are shown with their expected distribution of responses in Table 6. Chi square tests showed that the actual distribution of responses was signifi cantly different from the expected distribution for hypotheses 1 and 3 (1: = 57.91, 2df, p<.01; 3: X^= 325.98, 2df, p < .01), where as the actual distribution of responses was not significantly dif ferent from the expected distribution for hypotheses 2 (X^= 2.29, 2df). That is, the children made no distinction between 'further' and 'furthest'.
For the 'nearest' question there is no significant correlation between the number of correct responses given and age in months or scores on the English Picture Vocabulary Test. For the 'furthest' questions, there was no significant correlation between either the number of 'furthest' responses or the number of 'further' responses, and the age in months or scores on the English Picture Vocabulary Test.
Table 6 Hypotheses for possible responses to the 'furthest' question
Hypothesis Predicted pattern of response
Near Further Furthest
1. Random responding 32 32 32
2. Can't distinguish 'further'
from 'furthest' 5* 46 46
3. Can tell 'furthest' 5* 5* 86
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The results suggest that the children were able to distinguish between 'nearest' and 'furthest', but they cannot distinguish between 'further' and 'furthest'. This could be for two reasons: either the children cannot distinguish linguistically between furth er and furthest, or else they cannot distinguish spatially between further and furthest in this particular situation. There is appar ently a stage in the acquisition of terms of comparison when chil dren make no distinction between comparatives and superlatives (Wales and Campbell 1970); they may therefore be giving the 'further' answer to the 'furthest' question.
Large-Scale Distance Experiment Method Apparatus
1. Four large flowerpots - in which the toys were hidden.
2. Four toys - crow and monkey glove puppets, plastic spoon, and coloured pencil.
Procedure Learning Phase
Each child was shown the four toys and asked to name them. The names given by the child were used throughout the experiment. The
hide-and-seek game, in which they had to help the experimenter hide the four toys in the four large flowerpots. They were asked to re member where the toys were hidden because the experimenter had a very bad memory and would not be able to find them or her own, and so that they would be able to answer some questions. The toys were hidden in their flowerpot at the corners of an almost rectangular set of corridors as shown in Fig. 3. In order to maximise the children's chances of learning the layout of the environment, they hid the toys themselves (although the experimenter indicated where to hide them), and explored the experimental environment by them selves (Herman and Siegel 1978; Feldman and Acredolo 1979). The toys were hidden in the same locations for each child. The children explored the environment for two minutes, and were encouraged to re member the location of each toy.
Test Phase
The experimenter and child visited each location in turn. At each location the child was told 'I want you to pretend that you are a ghost or superman/wonderwoman who can walk through walls so that you can get to the hidden toys by any way you want instead of just by going along the paths we have just walked. Or you can pretend that all of the walls have become 'see-through' like windows so you can see all the hidden toys. If that were true, which toy would be nearest to/furthest from the ...? Would it be the ... , the ... or the ... (naming the 3 other toys)?' The order of the nearest/furthest questions was randomly alternated. The child
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