The participants’ testimonies have strongly supported the statistical results, explaining in more depth the connections between socio-biographical, acculturation variables, and personality traits and migrants’ language choice (Persian/English) for swearing. Participants’ socio-
biographical and acculturation variables showed influences on migrants’ language choice for swearing. For example, females who had embraced the values and norms of their host culture and were more acculturated used English swearwords to a significantly greater extent.
Testimonies from participants supported the connection between attachment to mainstream culture and swearing more in English, and they expressed their sense of constraints when
expressing emotion in L1. Female participants all declared the strict cultural constraints for using swearwords, and they also indicated that swearing in Persian carries cultural stigma for females - - therefore, they feel liberated and less suffocated and do not need to be constantly worried about what to say or not say in front of whom! Also, migrants’ language choice (Persian/English) for swearing is associated with their cultural attachment. Extensive use of English and using it for swearing related significantly to their mainstream culture attachments. Testimonies from participants also supported this finding, as they claimed that using English allows them to take outspoken attitudes about their feelings, which was typical of their host culture. English was perceived as more suitable to convey their emotional feelings, including swearwords, and they felt more natural and more themselves since they were not restricted by cultural constraints. Testimonies also showed that by using the English language, participants felt more outspoken and unprejudiced and more natural in expressing their feelings.
Considering the personality traits, many showed significant impacts on the language choice (Persian/English) for swearing among Persian immigrants. Those who scored high on Social Initiatives used swearwords to a greater extent. In fact, for those who are outgoing and talkative and use English more often, this could boost their knowledge in English as well as being able to express emotions and swearwords in English. Many participants’ testimonies
indicated the importance of being in contact with a wider network of interlocutors and having knowledge in that language, which boosts their understanding of the norms and values of the language and culture and has an impact on their language choice for swearing.
Considering the socio-biographical and acculturation variables, there were significant effects on language choice at the time of anger with different interlocutors. For example, there was a significant gender effect on using the Persian language at the time of anger for different interlocutors. As constantly stated by testimonies from participants, cultural restrictions on Persian females were highly restrictive in using swearwords regardless of their interlocutors. Therefore, at the time of anger they prefer to use English, which gives them an opportunity to express their emotions and feel liberated. In fact, the new language gives them the opportunity to voluntarily decide to stick to the language that made them feel more genuine when coping with swearing behaviour. Therefore, they consciously or unconsciously decided which cultural norms to embrace and to avoid those which were inadequate for them for revealing their emotions and intentions. Considering the links between younger age, a lower AOA, longer length of residency, higher frequency of the use of English, and self-rated knowledge in English and use of English at the time of anger with different interlocutors, the data showed that they were partly confirmed and qualitative insights conformably provided further shades of interpretations. Testimonies from participants provide more clarification for those elements which were not completely confirmed, and indicated the influence of heritage language and culture on the use of host culture language for different interlocutors. In Persian cultures, children and females are more restricted in using swearwords among family members, and people do not use them as it can cause family disgrace and stigma for them. Even younger people should use special pronouns when talking to or calling older people, and those who do not know them show their respect. Also, the data illustrated that those who have higher scores in heritage will use the Persian language at the time of anger with friends and themselves, but those with high scores in mainstream culture will use English at the time of anger with all interlocutors except family members. Testimonies from participants give more elaboration for this difference and showed the influence of Persian cultural restrictions on not using swearwords among family members, and it was present even when they used the English language.
Country of residence revealed different effects for the frequency of use, rate of
offensiveness, and effectiveness to express anger of both Persian and English swearwords. This was supported by many testimonies from participants which indicated the importance of a longer length of residency and its effect on knowing and becoming familiar with the norms and values of a culture and language, using the language more often and leading them to see things from new perspectives, which ultimately affect their use of emotional language, including swearing. Testimonies also revealed the influence of culture and language on the frequency of the use of swearwords, rate of offensiveness, and its effectiveness in expressing anger. Also, as shown by the statistical analysis, younger participants, those with lower AOA, a higher frequency of the use of English, higher self-rated knowledge in English and longer length of residency, reported using English swearwords more often. This was also illustrated by many testimonies: those participants who immigrated at younger ages and started learning and using English more often, which also boosted their knowledge of English, claimed to be using English swearwords more often, and this seemed more natural and was perceived as more suitable to convey their anger in English. This finding indicates affective acculturation.
Both the quantitative and qualitative data strongly highlighted the effect of acculturation on language choice for swearing. This also indicated that both cultures and language can co-exist in migrants’ minds, engaging in heritage culture and language does not imply disengaging from the host language and culture. Moreover, it showed the effect of both L2 on L1 and L1 on L2, and confirming a holistic view rather than having L1 or L2 as separate entities, the focus is on the whole picture. Testimonies from participants also indicated the fact that L1 felt stronger and L1 swearwords had undeniably high emotional power, but some indicated that using swear words more often in their LX, which provides their motivation for their swearing, which reflects the difference between annoyance swearing versus social/ routine swearing. Also, this analysis has shown that socio-biographical, acculturation variables and personality traits affect migrants’ language choice for swearing.
A more in-depth discussion of these findings and their connections to the literature previously reviewed will be presented in the next chapter (Chapter Five).