Findings on Objective 3: To recommend which area(s) that needs for

Indole alkaloids comprise serotonin chemically known as hydroxyltryptamine or 5-HT and others of their kind. These comprise the anesthetizing alkaloids of the passion flower, ophthalmic alkaloids associated with the physostigmine derived from the Calabar bean as well as the uterine tonics such as ergotamine. This variety of alkaloids also comprises the Indian snakeroot or the Rauwolfia serpentaria that consist of reserpine. Among the numerous central nervous stimulants such as strychnine, psilocybin and johimbine, indole alkaloids comprise indole carbon-nitrogen loop. Indole carbon-nitrogen ring is also present in the fungal alkaloids ergine and psilocybin, the neurotransmitter serotonin as well as the mind jerking medication LSD. Researches have shown that these alkaloids may often impede, obstruct or even contend with the action of serotonin in the brain. Interstingly, one of the strange aspects of alkaloids that occur naturally in the fungi includes ergot, known as Claviceps purpurea, which is basically a rust fungus that contaminates grains. Incidentally, the alkaloid of ergot is also known as ergine or D-lysergic acid amide. It is popularly known as the natural LSD. Synthetic LSD or D-lysergic acid diethylamide is more powerful than the natural LSD. Two genuses of Mexican morning glory vines also contain natural LSD and these vines are consumed by the native Indians there during significant therapeutic as well as religious ceremonies. Bufotenine, another enthralling indole alkaloid is widely present in yopo or parica or „Anadenanthera peregrina’ seeds. The yopo is a South America leguminous tree found in the Orinoco river basin and is different from the leguminous species anadenanthera. Native Indians in the Orinoco river basin collect the yopo seeds, make their powder and use them as a hallucinogenic snuff. Bufotenine is also of the 5-hudroxyldimethyltryptamine or 5-HT variety and is generally obtained from the indole alkaloid called tryptamine. Tryptamine is derived from the indispensable amino acid called tryptophan. Tryptophan comprises one of the eight necessary nutritional amino acids for the human beings and is also extensively found in the animal kingdom. Significantly, tryptophan cannot be synthesized by the humans (Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001).

53

Reserpine, an indole alkaloid, is obtained from the roots of a shrub known as snakeroot or „Rauvolfia serpentina‟ commonly found in India. Reserpine belongs to the dogbane family of „apocynacear and the species also often spelled as „rauwolfia‟ is alike with serotonin and has been often used to cease schizophrenin-like indications from LSD as well as the brain reducing activities in the case of patients suffering from the schizophrenic malady. A highly venomous alkaloid known as strychnine is another indole alkaloid that is obtained from the seeds of strychnos nux-vomica. Strychnos nux-vomica is a petite tree found in Asia and belongs to the logania family or the „Loganiaceae‟. Vinblastine and vincristine are two more varieties of indole alkaloids that are found in the Madagascar periwinkle. These varieties also known as

„Catharanthus roseus‟ are commonly cultivated in the area as a bedding plant belonging to the dogbane family or the „apocynaceae‟. Commonly known as spindle poisonous, these alkaloids have proved to be very effective in the treatment of chemotherapy for patients suffering from leukemia as well as the Hodgkin‟s disease that refers to the „lymph node and spleen cancer‟.

Researches have established (Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001) that this variety of alkaloids helps in terminating or „depolymerization‟ of protein microtubules that form the mitotic spindle in cell division. This process efficiently helps in terminating the tumor cells from separating or dividing and, henceforth, resulting to reduction of cancer. Other spindle used by medical practitioners in cancer chemotherapy comprise podophyllotoxin. Podophyllotoxin is an anti-neoplastic glucoside obtained from rhizomes of many apple, scientifically known as

„Podopyhllum peltatum’. „Podophyllum peltatum‟ belongs to the barberry family or

„Berberidaceae‟ and colchicines – an amine alkaloid from the corms of autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale)

(Obadoni and Ochuko, 2001).

2. 1.3.4 Pyrrolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids

Pyrrolizidine and quinolizidine are a complicated group. This group of alkaloids has always proven to be of immense pharmacological interest for researchers and clinical examiners. All these alkaloids are known to have lethal features and may prove to be fatal. While pyrrolizidine is obtained from omithine and is known to be injurious for the liver, quinolizidine is obtained from amino acid called lysine. Pyrrolizidine is generally found in ragworts, which is a problem for the grazing animals, comfrey, borage and coltsfoot. In the last instance, the evidence for toxicity is smaller and still unclear (Ajiwe et al; 2006).

54 2.1.3.5Quinoline alkaloids

Quinoline alkaloids include two fold carbon rings comprising one nitrogen atom (N) and they include quinine from the bark of Cinchona ledgeriana. Incidentally, Cinchona ledgeriana is a South American tree in the coffee family (Rubiaceae). The alkaloid quinine is poisonous to Plasmodium vivax and three supplementary classes, including the single-celled organisms or protozoans that cause malaria. Malaria is certainly one of the most widespread ailments all over the humid expanses of the globe, and it is pread through the bite or blood meal of the female anopheles mosquito. Although many synthetic anti-malarial drugs such as atabrine, chloroquine and primaquine have been developed, currently, quinine trees are grown in plantations. Some species of plasmodium are opposed to many of the synthetic quinine analogues and hence natural quinine is still used even to this day. In fact, there are people who still take prophylactic doses of bitter quinine water (tonic) in the evenings, habitually mixed with vodka or gin (Ajiwe et al; 2006).

2. 1.3.6 Isoquinoline alkaloids

Isoquinoline alkaloids are associated with quinoline alkaloids and constitute an important division of the alkaloid family. Isoquinoline alkaloids can be divided into several sub-classes and among others, comprise elements such as simple isoquinolines, benzylisoquinolines, phthalideisoquinolines, protopines, morphine alkaloids, protoberberines and ipecac alkaloids.

Simple isoquinolines are the alkaloids of mescaline cactus or Lopophora willamsii such as mescaline, while benzylisoquinolines are antecedents of many alkaloids that comprise opium poppy‟s papaverine. On the other hand, phthalideisoquinolines encompass all narcotine, protopines are restricted to the poppy family comprising protopine and protoberberines include berberine, hydrastine, canadine among others. Morphine alkaloids include morphine, codeine and the baine all from the opium poppy family, whereas ipecac alkaloids comprise emetic alkaloid, emetine obtained from ipecacuanha. Isoquinoline alkaloids comprise two-fold carbon loop that contains one nitrogen atom (N). This form of alkaloid comprises the narcotic

alkaloids generally present in

particular members of the poppy family or papaveraceae like the opium poppy or papave somniferum (Mark, 2003). All these powerful alkaloids are derived from the milk-like latex juice of ripened seed container of the opium poppy. Besides Papaver, opiate alkaloids that are found in the nature too are found in the argemone and dicentra genera. A major source of a powerful isoquinoline alkaloid utilized in curing deadly poisons is chondodendron

55

tomentosum, a member of the menispermaceae family, which is an extract from the barks and stem of a vine indigenous to South America. Indians in the Amazon area use this sticky derivative to cover the venomous nips of their blowguns – their amour against enemies as well as for hunting. Alkaloid D-tubocurarine posses a special healing power as it actively obstructs the acetylcholine receptor spots at the neuromuscular intersections enabling muscles to unwind as well as protect them from paralysis. This variety of alkaloid is also effective in relaxing as well as preventing the paralysis of the muscles in the respiratory tract as well as the heart.

Significantly, D-tubocurarine alkaloids have been extensively used to unwind the muscles of the heart during open heart surgeries. In addition, this variety of alkaloid has also been used by medicos in curing spastic or convulsive paralysis of tetanus venom that causes unmanageable re trenchment of muscle all over the body (Mark, 2003).