FOCUS GROUPS:

Focus groups, or group interviews, are used to collect data through face-to-face contact with more than one person at a time. Interviews may be structured, unstructured or semi-structured. Focus groups differ slightly to interviews in that the researcher takes a marginal role as a facilitator. As a facilitator the aim is to facilitate discussion amongst participants, as opposed to between participants and interviewer (Thomas: 2009). Since the therapeutic model engages group participation and discussion between participants, the information generated in these sessions will be used as data to determine the effectiveness of the therapeutic model. Therefore, each session and follow-up session of the parent guidance programme will also be considered part of the data collection methods of this research.

The focus groups focussed on the following discussion questions:

• What information stood out to you with regards to your child?

• What information stood out to you with regards to your parenting?

• What skills and knowledge do you feel you have learnt?

• Is there anything that confused you or caused difficulties for you or your children?

• Have you noticed any changes in your children in the following areas:

o Academic achievement o Behaviour

o Responsibility o Overall wellbeing o Belief in himself/herself

The focus groups were closed with a short summary of the course by briefly stating the nine guidelines for enhancing internal locus of control (Da Silva: 2009). Parents were asked if they recognised the guidelines throughout the duration of the course material presented to them.

5.3.4 SAMPLING

Participants are needed in order to collect the data using the techniques described above. Since the research question of this study asks what therapeutic model can guide parents towards enhancing internal locus of control in primary school children, we need to test the effectiveness of the proposed model on parents. Therefore, parents of primary school children are our target population. The population is the group of individuals a researcher seeks to learn about from a research study (McBride: 2010). However, it is impractical (if not impossible) to assess all parents in the population. Therefore, a sample that represents the larger population is necessary. A sample is a group of individuals chosen from the population to represent it in a research study (McBride: 2010). Assuming the sample truly represents the wider population allows for the findings of the research to be generalised to the population (Thomas: 2009).

Sampling can be done either through random sampling or stratified sampling.

Random sampling implies randomly selecting research participants. However, a downfall of this is that the sample may be a distorted picture of the population. This is also known as convenience sampling. To ensure a sample reflects the characteristics of the population, stratified sampling is recommended (Thomas:

However, participants were selected from the interested parties to ensure a diversity of views within the South African context, as well as to keep to the limitations set by the research question. Participants included South African families of different race and culture, as well as various family structures. Participants were limited to those families where at least 1 child was between the ages of 6 and 12 – primary school age. Addendum I gives a description of the participants involved in this study.

A distinction should be noted between the parent-participants and the child-participants. The parent participants are the primary participants in this study as they will be required to participate in the parenting programme and their attitudes and behaviours are assessed before, during and after the completion of the parenting programme. While the child-participants are considered the secondary participants, their role in this study remains crucial. The child-participants are assessed in the area of control orientation before and after the implementation of the parent programme. The expected changes in the children’s control orientation will be assumed to be due to the effectiveness of the therapeutic model and the changes seen in the parents influencing the parent-child relationship. In Figure 5.2 I illustrate the process of evaluation.

Figure 5.2

Process of evaluating the effectiveness of the therapeutic model

Therapeutic Model Parent-Participant Child Participant Application into

parenting role

Application into parent-child relationship

Evaluation of effectiveness by

parents

Evaluation of effectiveness observed in child’s behaviour and locus of control score Evaluation of effectiveness observed in

parent-child relationship

!

Research is driven by a standard of conduct (ethics) to ensure integrity. Thomas (2009:146-147) discusses the issue of ethics. He reasons that ethics need to be viewed beyond the practical matters. He states “ethics is about the conduct of your work: it is about how you think about inquiry, how you think about this research project; it is about your respect for others.” He goes on to explain that the privileges of critical inquiry need to be balanced with responsibility. This is where ethical principles of conduct are found. Ethics is about what is right and wrong. However, the complication lies in balancing one right action with another right action, or taking into account the possibility of conflicting interests of all involved (Thomas: 2009).

Piper and Simons (2011:25) concur that ethics is the result of weighing up a myriad of factors in the complex social and political situations in which research is conducted. They continue that sets of principles are drawn up to protect the rights of participants in research as well as to guide the researcher’s actions in the field.

McBride (2010:88) reasons that ethical guidelines are necessary to ensure objectivity about the affects of a study on participants, as well as whether or not harm is caused to participants. McBride (2010:106) further indicates the ethics involved in reporting on research. Ethics of this nature ensure accuracy and validity in research, as current research carries consequences for future research.

Because ethics is crucial to ensuring the protection of participants as well at the accuracy of the study, the ethical principles suggested in literature have been adhered to within this study. I tabulate a summary of the ethical principles in Table 5.1 below.

Principle carried out in study Institutional

Review Board (IRB)

approval

Institutional review boards are required to oversee research conducted on site or by researchers affiliated with that institution. The IRB ensure that ethical guidelines are adhered to in research with human participants. The IRB reviews all proposed studies and provides an objective evaluation on the ethics of a study (McBride: 2010). Ethical committees ensure that researchers have considered possible ethical issues that may occur.

They further develop protocols to protect participants from harm and act as guardians of research methodology (Piper & Simons: 2011).

This study falls under the IRB of the

University of South Africa (UNISA). Ethical approval was awarded by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) of Unisa. (Addendum J).

Reduce harm Reduction of harm should include a risk-benefit analysis. The benefits of the study should outweigh the risks involved. The consideration of risks should take into account physical, psychological and social risks. Debriefing should take place as soon as possible after the completion of the study. Should this not be possible, the researcher should protect against participant’s harm. If a researcher becomes aware of unexpected harm to participants, measures should be taken to ensure harm is reduced and if necessary discontinue the research (McBride:

2010).

Possible harm and benefits were outlined in the letter of consent (Addendum K).

However, should unexpected harm occur, it will be dealt with accordingly.

Debriefing with parties involved will be set at the completion of this study. any errors must be corrected if discovered. Citation of others’ work and ideas must be done properly.

Other ethical considerations in this category are that publication credit can be taken only for work done by the authors and that data should be shared with other researchers to allow verification of results (McBride: 2010).

This study is

supervised under the auspices of UNISA.

This research will be held accountable by the body of examiners who will examine this thesis for possible data errors, plagiarism and to ensure accuracy.

Justice The selection of participants must be fair. All participants should stand a fair chance of receiving the potential benefits of the research. Further, potential risks should not be exclusively administered to a specific group. Special considerations must be taken into account for groups that are at risk for manipulation. Further, should a specific group be left out of the study, there must be scientific explanation for this exclusion (McBride: 2010).

Selection of

participants was done on the basis of random, convenience sampling.

However, consideration was made to ensure all cultural groups were included (Section 3.4).

All participants are expected to fairly benefit from the study, and harm is not expected to be exclusive to one particular group in this study.

consent give their permission fully knowledgeable of the purpose and consequences of the research. The following details are required to be presented to the participants in a meaningful and understandable manner.

• Nature and purpose of study, including methods and procedures. Whether audio/visual recording of sessions is to take place.

• Expected duration of the study

• Expected benefits of the study

• Participants may decline to participate and may withdraw their participation at any time

• Possible harm and foreseeable risks that may come from the study

• Information about confidentiality, anonymity, how data will be kept and for how long, with details of when data will be destroyed

• Ethics procedures being followed and appeals

• Contact details of the researcher

Providing a consent form where participants are provided with the above information is often used.

Participants can read and sign before their participation in the study. Assent should be requested from participants under the legal guardianship of others. This should include information regarding their participation, and should occur in a language that is understandable to them.

(Thomas: 2009, McBride: 2010, Piper & Simons: participant. The letter of consent describes the details required for informed consent relating to this study.

Further, parents were informed of their children’s participation, as well as consent was required from the other parent, even in the case of not attending the sessions. of the questionnaires. A letter explaining this discussion was given to parents to make them aware of the process of requesting minor assent. Addendum L Coercion Incentives for participation must be reasonable so as

to not be coercive (McBride: 2010).

Incentives were not used in this study.

However, the benefits (and consequences) of the study were listed in the letter of consent.

Deception If research involves deception, the researcher must determine the necessity and justification for deception and explain the use of deception to the participants as soon as possible at the completion of the study. Deception must not cause physical pain or severe distress (McBride: 2010).

Deception is not used as part of this study.

and anonymity

confidence. Participants may refuse to allow certain publication of material that they may consider harmful to them. In other words, they may require certain discussions to remain confidential.

Anonymity is the protection of a person’s privacy and aspires to allow participants to go unidentified.

This is often accomplished through altering identifying particulars. (Heppner, Wampold &

Kivlighan: 2008)

aware that the

information collected in this study will be reported on. Further, participants were made aware of the use of audio/visual collection of data. As part of the letter of consent, participants were requested to sign an agreement of

confidentiality for the sake of all who participate. However, the potential risks of not remaining anonymous due to this study being a group study was related to the participants.

Throughout this study all identifying

particulars have been changed and

pseudonyms used to protect the identity of the participants.

As discussed in the table above, ethical guidelines have been implemented throughout the duration of this study. The ethical principles enveloping this study include IRB approval, informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, reduced harm, justice and ethical reporting of the research. Ethics regarding coercion and deception have been considered. With ethical guidelines in place, the wellbeing of participants and the accuracy of this research are ensured. Thus, research can take place.

Chapter 5 has examined the research design of this study. The methodology, design frame, data collection techniques and instruments have been discussed.

This discussion expresses the understanding of why each component has been chosen and how each component will be used as the research is carried out. Most importantly, the ethical considerations that will be adhered to throughout the research process are discussed, to ensure the welfare of the participants and the quality of the study.

Chapter 6 discusses the data collected and analyses the findings of the empirical research. Understanding the research design and the collection techniques allows one to consider what is found and compare it to literature and to the aims and assumptions held at the beginning of this study. Further, the data collected needs to be thoroughly considered and the practical implementation and changes critically examined – as is expected in action research. Thus, the chapter ahead describes the process of critical thinking and the final analysis of the findings.