FORMS OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

Service Delivery - Welfare - Technical - Legal - Financial - Infrastructure Donation Advocacy Coordination Technical - Specialist Advice - Education - Training - Technology Transfer Financial

- Foreign Direct Investment - Grants - Loans - Remuneration - Remittances - Micro Credit - Debt Relief

TECHNIQUES OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

(vary according to scale, form and purpose) Agricultural Development

Industrial Development Trade and Development

Eco Development People-Centred Development Regional Development Urban Development Rural Development Gender and Development Grassroots Development Ethno Development

FORMS OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

These functions relate to the base circumstance and purpose of the development process. As shown at Table 3.4, they encompass purposes throughout the continuum of development activity and coordinate subordinate actions and techniques to achieve the wider effects that will satisfy those purposes. In doing so, these functions also relate the conduct of the development activities to the wider aims and goals of the development process - and thereby form one element by which the results of development can be realised in terms of the various achievements and effects that occur.

19 _{The following sources were used in the preparation of this table and associated discussion:}

(Millennium Project, 2005, p. 46; Potter, 2002, p. 62; C. Thomas, 2005; UN, 2002a, pp. 2 & 5; UNGA, 2005, pp. 3-19; Willis, 2005).

Table 3.4: Functions in Development 20

Development. The utilisation of the state or society’s base

capacities to improve human well being. Incorporates the Copenhagen Declaration of 1995 and the people-centred focus of alternative views of development within the wider purview of sustainable development.

Social Development

Development. The utilisation of the state or society’s base

capacities to achieve economic growth as one development vector within the overarching concept of sustainable development. Linked to orthodox views of development.

Economic Development

Rehabilitation and Development. Rehabilitating and developing the full range of a

state or society’s base capacities to establish a greater capacity for development.

Capacity Building

Rehabilitation and Development. Establishing the conditions for further development

and meaningful participation through the integrity and viability of public institutions and processes. Governance

The reconstruction or rehabilitation of social systems and infrastructure. Focuses upon individuals, communities and societies through the conduct of health, education, repatriation, resettlement and employment programmes (among others).

Social Reconstruction

Primary purpose of

rehabilitation but will occur to support purposes of relief and development as well. May occur as the recovery phase after disaster or conflict or to support the subsequent development of

failed/failing/fragile or weak states and societies. The reconstruction or rehabilitation of physical

infrastructure. Includes the rebuilding, repair or maintenance of such assets as lines of

communication, power systems, water systems, etc. Physical

Reconstruction

Relief (natural disaster) A facet of Humanitarian Assistance. The

distinction is made between the two concepts, however, because whereas Humanitarian Assistance encompasses situations of conflict the provision of Emergency Relief (or Disaster Relief) is conducted in a more politically benign context and may incorporate different actors and stakeholders.

Emergency Relief

Relief (natural disaster and/or conflict)

May be conducted in consensual or non-consensual environments

“Humanitarian assistance is aid to an affected population that seeks, as its primary purpose, to save lives and alleviate suffering of a crisis- affected population.” (OCHA)

Encompasses direct assistance (face to face distribution of goods and services), indirect assistance (the transportation of relief supplies, etc) and infrastructure support (providing general services that facilitate relief).

Humanitarian Assistance Purpose / Context Description Function Development. The utilisation of the state or society’s base

capacities to improve human well being. Incorporates the Copenhagen Declaration of 1995 and the people-centred focus of alternative views of development within the wider purview of sustainable development.

Social Development

Development. The utilisation of the state or society’s base

capacities to achieve economic growth as one development vector within the overarching concept of sustainable development. Linked to orthodox views of development.

Economic Development

Rehabilitation and Development. Rehabilitating and developing the full range of a

state or society’s base capacities to establish a greater capacity for development.

Capacity Building

Rehabilitation and Development. Establishing the conditions for further development

and meaningful participation through the integrity and viability of public institutions and processes. Governance

The reconstruction or rehabilitation of social systems and infrastructure. Focuses upon individuals, communities and societies through the conduct of health, education, repatriation, resettlement and employment programmes (among others).

Social Reconstruction

Primary purpose of

rehabilitation but will occur to support purposes of relief and development as well. May occur as the recovery phase after disaster or conflict or to support the subsequent development of

failed/failing/fragile or weak states and societies. The reconstruction or rehabilitation of physical

infrastructure. Includes the rebuilding, repair or maintenance of such assets as lines of

communication, power systems, water systems, etc. Physical

Reconstruction

Relief (natural disaster) A facet of Humanitarian Assistance. The

distinction is made between the two concepts, however, because whereas Humanitarian Assistance encompasses situations of conflict the provision of Emergency Relief (or Disaster Relief) is conducted in a more politically benign context and may incorporate different actors and stakeholders.

Emergency Relief

Relief (natural disaster and/or conflict)

May be conducted in consensual or non-consensual environments

“Humanitarian assistance is aid to an affected population that seeks, as its primary purpose, to save lives and alleviate suffering of a crisis- affected population.” (OCHA)

Encompasses direct assistance (face to face distribution of goods and services), indirect assistance (the transportation of relief supplies, etc) and infrastructure support (providing general services that facilitate relief).

Humanitarian Assistance

Purpose / Context Description

Function

Achievements and Effects

The purpose of the development process is to achieve an aim, goal or objective. However, the actual results of the development process are not so clear cut as

20 _{The following sources were used in the preparation of this table: (Cilliers, 2006; Elliot, 2003,}

pp. 259-260 & 269; Emmerij, 2002, p. 255; Makinda, 2003, p. 309; Millennium Project, 2005, p. 99; Milliken & Krause, 2002, p. 765; OCHA, 2003, p. 13; C. Thomas, 2005; UN, 2002a, pp. 3 & 5; UNGA, 2005, pp. 2, 9 & 12; World Bank, (Economic Development); 2000, pp. xi-xx; 2004, p. 1).

they may incur a variety of achievements and effects. The achievements that may be realised indicate the degree to which the various aims, goals and objectives have been met; either as intrinsic elements in their own right or as part of a sequential process within a wider programme of activities. The effects relate these achievements to the wider development process. These effects can be viewed as a matrix of the interactions between the different natures, types and impacts that may occur (as shown at Figure 3.2). As such, the combinations of these effects qualify the actual achievements and indicate the relative efficacy of that particular iteration of the development process.

Nature of Effect Desired Undesired Type of Effect Anticipated Unanticipated Impact of Effect Positive Negative Neutral Nature of Effect Desired Undesired Type of Effect Anticipated Unanticipated Impact of Effect Positive Negative Neutral

Figure 3.2: Effects of Development

The true import of these achievements and effects within development is not so much that they occur but instead the degree to which they may influence subsequent iterations of the process. This is conducted through the function of monitoring and evaluation that assesses the results of the activity and provides appropriate feedback so that the future activities are conducted in an effective manner. This is not a neutral form of assessment, however, as the definition of ‘effectiveness’ and the measurement criteria employed are influenced by both the intentions of the various actors and stakeholders involved, and the parameters of the policy approaches followed. Furthermore, the scale and sequence of the development methods employed may require that evaluations are available to help modify the conduct of development within a specific programme rather than allow the completion of a full feedback cycle that encompasses new

evaluation of the results of development indicates a degree of complexity within the process that may not be truly represented by simple linear chains of causal progression. This then forms the base for the representation of development through an integrated and holistic model of the wider development process.

Model of Development

An appropriate model of development is one that represents the relationship between the parameters of the construct with the conception of an open and adaptive (organic) system that characterises that construct. Although the organisation of the previous discussion may indicate that development can be viewed as a sequential process of linear progression from circumstance through to result, this does not appropriately represent the complex and recursive nature of the process. The model presented at Figure 3.3 portrays development as an open system of internal adaptation as it interacts with a wider external

environment. DEVELOPMENT Circumstances Actors / Stakeholders Purposes / Intentions Methods Approaches Considerations Forms Achievements / Effects External Influences Conduct Factors Results DEVELOPMENT Circumstances Actors / Stakeholders Purposes / Intentions Methods Approaches Considerations Forms Achievements / Effects External Influences Conduct Factors Results

Figure 3.3: Model of Development 21

The factors of development represent the inputs to the process; the conduct of development represents the actual transformation that occurs; and the results of the process represent the outputs. However, this model differs from that of linear

causation as it identifies that each element and stage of the process may affect those around it – generating new combinations of purpose and activity in terms of scale, scope and/or referent object. The recursive nature of the process is also identified as the model shows how the elements may influence or be influenced by each other without the conduct of a full cyclical loop. This results in the formation of non-directed and consequential relationships within the process itself.

A further factor that adds to the complexity of development is the degree of interaction with the external environment of the international forum. Not only do these external influences establish the inputs and realise the outputs of the development process but, through the opportunity cost of resources and political will, they both influence and are influenced by the conduct of the process itself. In this regard, development is not so much a progression as it is a series of pathways within the wider framework of the development process and

international relations. This is the key effect that prevents a single authoritative definition of ‘development’ and defies a positivist approach to what is a dynamic and complex social construct. Any operational definition of development,

therefore, should incorporate these elements of dynamism and complexity.