Future Research

The results of this study have demonstrated that the construction of drowning risk is complex and multi-factorial. Although robust and providing fresh evidence on the nature of that complexity, the results do, however, require follow-up investigation and research. The dependence on self-reporting inherent in this type of survey research, even though it has provided a comprehensive introductory explanation of the complexity of youth drowning risk, does have limitations. It is important to further examine youth drowning risk through observational studies so that the findings of at- risk behaviour found in this study via self-reported incidence can be corroborated or refuted. In particular, given the extent of youth non-compliance with rules regarding swimming alone or with adult supervision, swimming between the flags and listening to the advice of lifeguards, further observational studies of youth risk behaviour while swimming at patrolled surf beaches are warranted. Similarly, evidence of observed at- risk behaviour would be useful to corroborate the extent of alcohol consumption and the non-wearing of lifejackets, especially by young males, during boating and fishing activity.

Such studies also might profitably be targeted at the late adolescent age group (17-19 years) who were not well represented in the present study of Year 11 students. A longitudinal study that tracks the water safety behaviour and attitudes of youth from Year 11 to Year 13 would be particularly fruitful as it might investigate whether water safety knowledge, attitudes and behaviours consolidate or change at a time when students are experiencing greater social independence from school and family

influences. Such research also could determine whether more frequent aquatic activity and at-risk behaviours (such as alcohol consumption and ignoring safety rules) are characteristic of young adult males in the Year 12 and 13 senior school/school-leaving populations.

Further evidence of actual rather than self-reported abilities on youth water safety knowledge and skills also would help ascertain how protective these dispositions are in minimising drowning risk. In particular, finding out more about youth swimming ability in open water and its relationship to self-estimated swimming ability and swimming

ability as measured by distance swum in a swimming pool, would enhance understanding of how swimming skills transfer from a closed- to an open-water

environment, and thus provide a more accurate measure of the role of swimming ability in drowning risk. In addition, given the relatively poor levels of water safety knowledge reported in this study, further research is required on individual’s cognitive

understanding of water safety principles. Rather than rely on written evidence of knowledge, as was the case in this survey research, knowledge also might be examined orally or by observation when youth are participating practically in a range of activities such as a boating trip or a visit to a surf beach, experiences that were included only hypothetically in the present study.

In addition, specific sub-groups that have been identified as having major deficiencies in water safety knowledge and skills could also be studied. Such studies might, for example, focus on students from low-decile schools, or Asian and Pasifika students who have been shown to have poorer swimming and water safety education. This research could be done in conjunction with pilot studies of remedial water safety programmes for specifically targeted school and community programmes. One particularly intriguing prospect is a study on different ways of teaching water safety skills (such as risk management or CPR skills) that recognise differences in the ways that youth construct their understanding of water safety. For example, a study on the use of reciprocal learning, which capitalises on the importance of peers in the acquisition of male water safety knowledge found in this study, might provide for more effective water safety education of males, many of whom appear resistant to current forms of didactic instruction.

As well as further analysis of water safety skills and knowledge, ongoing study of student perceptions of drowning risk is warranted. The marked differences found in estimation of risk between male and female youth provides impetus for further in-depth research, via case or focus group study, on male overestimation of ability and

underestimation of risk as previously discussed. Examination of risk assessment using video and on-site analysis of real, rather than imagined, scenarios would be particularly informative, since it would place the risk assessment process in the social context where decision-making about potential harm takes place rather than as part of a hypothetical exercise as was the case with the present study.

As a way of further understanding what youth think about water safety, youth opinions on water safety could be analysed via qualitative study using focus group discussion to determine what collective attitudes about water safety exist among groups of young people. For example, the evidence of peer pressure among males to perform risky acts around water found in this study requires further qualitative and in-depth analysis to help explain why many young males either encourage others to behave dangerously, or why they might respond to such prompts from others.

Finally, further research is required on the role of water safety knowledge, attitudes and behaviours on other water-related injuries that do not have drowning or near-drowning as a consequence. Some evidence has been presented of unsafe attitudes and dangerous behaviours with regard to diving practices that may result in spinal cord injury (SCI). More detailed analysis and reporting of this diving injury risk data was beyond the scope of the present enquiry on drowning risk, and will be the subject of future publication. Such a study will provide a useful starting point for further research on youth knowledge, attitudes and behaviours in relation to dangerous diving practices, especially with regard to the diving habits of young males and the role of alcohol in a social setting.