Gaps in the Literature and Justification for the Study

The review has exposed some forms of influences of external actors during formulation of national ICT policy in Africa. For example, research that sought to understand the role and influence of external actors and ideas in African ICT policies in the case of the AISI found that trans-national business corporations were not directly involved in the establishment of the AISI (Chiumbu, 2008). The scholar found that business sector members such as CISCO, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) and Worldspace Corporation, were not visible in the policy-making processes of the ECA that led to the development of the framework for formulating national ICT policies in African countries. However, the study found that bilateral / multilateral donors and UN agencies such as UNESCO, ITU and UNDP largely influenced the creation of the AISI. Similarly, in the case of the Eswatini national ICT policy formulation, Metfula (2013) found that UNECA, a UN agency, and the Finnish government experts largely dominated the policy process although they were invisible actors. These studies focused on the interaction of policy actors in a policy network but did not explore how beliefs, values and perceptions of the actors could have affected the policy processes. This area needs attention.

The review has also put to bare the external actors that had some material interests in the AISI, which are categorised as (1) bilateral and multilateral donors such as USAID, IDRC, the World Bank, DFID and the Government of Finland and (2) UN agencies such as UNESCO and the ITU (Chiumbu, 2008). Traditionally, these donors have been partners in providing financial and technical assistance to developing countries particularly in Africa (Etta & Elder, 2005). However, Chiumbu (2008) found that these donors played other roles in the formulation stages of the AISI. For example, the IDRC, ITU and UNESCO pressed for the holding of the Telematics for Development conference that gave rise to the emergence of the AISI in addition

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to getting directly involved in the selection of the HLWG members including offering policy advice to the group (Chiumbu, 2008, p.169). Furthermore, the study found that the trans- national business corporations played an indirect role in the operations of the AISI. For example, the first two AISI implementation meetings in 1996 and 1997 and the annual review and planning meetings were directed by these business corporations (Chiumbu, 2008). A study on the interplay between policy network actors and ICT policies found that the visibility of external actors in the Eswatini process affected some actors. For example, actors from the private sector pulled out of the policy process on account that their contributions were not needed following the dominance of the external actors in the policy formulation process (Metfula, 2013).

The studies appear to show some power imbalances between external actors and the local policy actors. This external influence appears to be negative as African countries are led into creating policies which are not compatible with local context and the actors’ domination limits local participation in the policy-making processes. At the same time, African countries do not appear to have the capacity to formulate policies without the foreign assistance.

2.14.1 Forms of influences

The most common criticisms in the literature reviewed are that external actors influence formulation of national ICT policy in Africa. The studies identify different forms of external influences that include the NICI plan (Adam & Gillwald, 2007; Dzidonu, 2002), conferences such as WSIS (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula, 2013), technical and financial support (Adam & Gillwald, 2007; Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula, 2013; Odongo, 2012), among others. An attempt to identify effects of the influences was made in Metfula’s study in which it was suggested that private actors pulled out during the formulation of the Eswatini national ICT policy, which is attributed to external influences. Although withdrawing from a policy-making activity may in some sense be described as an effect, it does not demonstrate an effect on the resulting policy. Furthermore, there appears to be a contradiction in the use of the word effects in the study. In the literature review section, Metfula (2013, p.34) suggests that effects of a policy are established through the evaluation stage. However, in the results section, Metfula uses effects to mean pressure from external actors and/or withdrawing of private actors from the policy process as effects of the external influences on policy. Thus the term effects is not used consistently in the research. In another study, Odongo (2012) identified influences of external actors particularly those from the IDRC as encompassing financial and technical support.

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Adam and Gillwald (2007) also reveal that policies that were developed by external actors with little or no involvement of stakeholders were never implemented. However, it appears the scholars did not go beyond identifying the influences to show how the external influences affect policy formulation, which may result in poor policy outcomes. Thus the findings of the studies seem to suggest that it was not the intention of the scholars to explore effects or consequences of the external influences on the policy. The exposed forms of influence of external actors can be summarised into:

i. NICI framework;

ii. Provision of financial support; iii. Provision of technical support;

iv. Setting standards during the formulation of national ICT policies; v. Setting of events.

2.14.2 Influences of external actors

Scholars have explored influences of external actors on national ICT policy and classified them as direct and indirect influences (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula, 2013). However, the review appears to suggest that there is a dearth of studies that have linked country context such as poverty levels, culture and other social dimensions to the technical and financial support that the external actors provide during formulation of public policies. The literature has also identified several challenges that are associated with policy formulation in African countries while acknowledging opportunities such as development of model ICT policies at regional level for use in member countries (Maitland & van Gorp, 2009). Notable challenges that have been exposed by the review are infrastructure, lack of skills, and socio-economic issues. The claim that country context does not have an effect on formulation or implementation of a national ICT policy (Myers & Tan, 2002), therefore, requires further examination.

Past research on national ICT policies in developing countries have mostly discussed the interaction of the actors without considering the actors’ beliefs, values, conduct, or perceptions.

2.14.3 Assessing effects of influences

Research has attempted to identify the effects of influence of external actors on policy formulation (Chiumbu, 2008; Etta & Elder, 2005, Metfula, 2013). Some of the studies used the policy network analysis (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula, 2013) to analyse the interaction of actors within a policy network. The complexity of the relationships between the policy network and

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policy outcomes has been recorded (Marsh & Smith, 2000). The review suggests that it was not the intention of the scholars (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula (2013) to analyse the resulting policy outcomes in their work. Birkland (2015, p.229) defines a policy outcome as “the substantive results of the implementation of a policy”. However, earlier research mainly focused on the formulation stage (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula, 2013). An appropriate theory is thus required to analyse that relationship.

Previous work on influences of external actors on ICT policy formulation at regional and national levels has benefited from neo-Gramscian theory and Habermas Theory of Communicative Action (TCA) respectively. The neo-Gramscian theory is used to analyse the relationship between power and ideas and examine how major actors determine policies. On the other hand, Habermas’ TCA promotes free participation in communication through an ideal speech situation, which is constantly threatened in policy networks. TCA assumes that ideas of actors are equally assessed and that the best ones will win. The theory also assumes that quality outcomes result from a spirited and patient public (Habermas, 1987). Theories about the role and influence of external actors on national ICT policy are stated in general terms. For example, the proposition that “actors with material power are in a better position to shape ideas and discourses that have a bearing on a policy process” (Chiumbu, 2008) should be derived from theoretical point of view.

The goal in this study is to explore the gaps between the consequences of the influence of external actors within a policy network and the policy outcomes. These gaps in the literature drive this study to answer the following primary question: How does the influence of external actors affect formulation of national ICT policies in developing countries? This goal is consistent with a call for more critical research that considers political dimensions of policy reform and economic regulation (Gillwald, 2010). Supporting questions that will assist in addressing the main goal of the research are:

i. How do external and local actors engage with each other in a developing country during policy formulation?

ii. What categories of influence of external actors have an effect on national ICT policy formulation in developing countries?

iii. How does country context affect the way external actors influence the policy formulation of a developing country?

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While scholars have revealed influences of the external actors on national ICT policies, their focus has not been on the consequences or effects of the influences. This review considers the effects of influences of external actors on national ICT policy formulation in developing countries by asking: how does the influence of external actors affect formulation of national ICT policies in developing countries?

Scholars have attempted to identify the effects of influence of external actors on policy formulation (Chiumbu, 2008; Etta & Elder, 2005, Metfula, 2013). For example, Metfula (2013) found that the views of the local actors were ignored by external actors during the formulation of the national ICT policy in Eswatini. Furthermore, the study reveals that “Some policy actors felt that the behind-the-scenes workings of UNECA resulted not only to the adoption of cut and dry policy pillars adapted from other countries, but also to the urgency and the time-lines to deliver the policy” (Metfula, 2013, p. 152). The review has uncovered a dislike of the external actors’ behaviour during the formulation of the national ICT policy in Eswatini. The review seems to suggest that foreign influence is negative as it leads the countries to create policies which are not compatible with local context. Besides the literature suggests that external influence limits local participation in the policy-making processes. On the other hand, the literature appears to suggest that the African countries, at the same time, lack the capacity to formulate policies without the foreign assistance. This suggests future research agenda.

2.14.4 Country context

Past work on country context shows contradictory findings in the literature. One school of thought suggests that policy should be linked to country context (Adam & Gillwald, 2007; Kendall et al., 2006) while the other posits that there is no link between policy-making and country context (Myers & Tan, 2002). While past studies have suggested linking formulation of a policy with a country context (Adam & Gillwald, 2007; Kendall et al., 2006; Njihia & Merali, 2013), not much has been done to follow up this recommendation. Future research may consider empirical studies on the relationship between country context and formulation of a national ICT policy by asking that: how does the context of a developing country (economic, social, environmental, political) cause unintended policy outcomes during formulation of a national ICT policy?

2.14.5 Theoretical underpinning

On theoretical framework, the literature review has revealed that Chiumbu (2008) and Metfula (2013) used the policy network analysis to analyse the interaction of actors within a policy

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network. The complexity of the relationships between the policy network and policy outcomes has been recorded, one of which is between the network and policy outcomes (Marsh & Smith, 2000). This appears to suggest that it was not the intention of the scholars (Chiumbu, 2008; Metfula (2013) to analyse the effects of the influence of external actors on the resulting policy in their work. One major limitation of PNA is that it may be used to analyse policy processes but it is vague on explaining how behaviours and roles of actors affect the policy process (Rhodes, 1997). This study is aimed at analysing effects of the influence of external actors, which focus on the relationship between external influence in terms of roles and behaviour and policy formulation. An appropriate theory is thus required to analyse that relationship. The literature review has revealed some gaps. It appears that few studies sought to analyse the effects or consequences of the influence of external actors on policy formulation in relation to country context. Literature suggests that policy-making is affected by a number of factors, which include actor’s resources, position and behaviour in a policy network, operating environment of the actors and composition of the policy network. This study will explore the external actors as part of the policy network. The literature review reveals that the studies have not yet provided a theoretical explanation on the relationship between effects of influence of external actors during formulation of a national ICT policy and policy outcomes. Most studies on ICT policy-making in Africa have been conducted in the context of solving ICT- related problems in which issues of ICT policy are addressed according to the existing global ICT governance (Chiumbu, 2008). Future research may thus explore this relationship by answering the question: how does the influence of external actors during formulation of a national ICT policy affect outcomes of the policy?