General conclusions

The results of studies I, II and III permit the following conclusions to be drawn:

 There are interindividual differences in the meaning of peers and teachers in their role as motivators for adolescent students (7th and 8th grade), which should be considered within the school context by different learning environments, tasks and ways of instructions and support. The diversity of students should be understood as a benefit rather than a deficit (Study II and III).

 The different role peers and teachers play for adolescents’ scholastic motivation is associated with different degrees of academic achievement motivation and

achievement goal orientation, which again underlines interindividual differences in adolescent students’ motivation (Study I).

 Four different motivation types (MT) in adolescent students can be distinguished: (1) peer-dependent MT, (2), teacher-dependent MT, (3), peer-and-teacher-

dependent MT, (4) peer-and-teacher-independent MT. The typology indicates that adolescent students tend to be socially motivated in specific ways. The knowledge about the typology can be used to improve student's learning by understanding and building on their individual motivation type. (Study II and III).

 The four types distinguish in the interplay of self-determination and school engagement: (1) competence and autonomy function as predictors of school engagement for the peer-and-teacher-dependent MT, (2) relatedness functions as a predictor of school engagement for the teacher-dependent MT, (3) relatedness and competence function as predictors of school engagement for the peer-dependent MT and finally, (4) competence functions as a predictor of school engagement for

the peer-and-teacher-independent MT. Taken together, the results suggest that the needs that students satisfy through self-determination are the ones which have not yet been satisfied through their socio-motivational dependency (Study III).  The results of Study II and III underline not only the meaning of interindividual

differences in the association between social relationships and motivation. Additionally, the results confirm the words of Boekaerts (2001) that there is still much to learn about individual preferences when it comes to motivational aspects (Study II and III).

5.5 References

Bergman, L. R., & Andersson, H. (2010). The person and the variable in

developmental psychology. Journal of Psychology, 218, 155–165. doi: 10.1027/0044- 3409/a000024

Bergman, L. R., & Magnusson, D. (1997). A person-oriented approach in research on

developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 291–319. doi: 10.1017/S095457949700206X

Brown, B. B. (1990). Peer groups and peer cultures. In S. S. Feldman & G.R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold (pp. 171–196). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brown, B. B., & Theobald, W. (1999). How peers matter: A research synthesis of peer

influences on adolescent pregnancy. In P. Bearman, H. Brückner, B. B. Brown, W. Theobald, & S. Philliber (Eds.), Peer potential: Making the most of how teens influence each other (pp. 27–80). Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Bukowski, W. M., Buhrmester, D., & Underwood, M. (2011). Peer relationships as a

developmental context. In M. Underwood & L. Rosen (Eds.) Social development, (pp. 153–179). New York, NY: Guilford.

Bukowski, W. M., Motzoi, C., & Meyer, F. (2009). Friendship as process, function,

and outcome. In K. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 217-231). New York, NY: Guilford. Cook, T. D., Deng, Y., & Morgano, E. (2007). Friendship influences during early

adolescence: The special role of friends' grade point average. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 325–356. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00525.x

in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.), (2000). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

Fend, H. (1998). Eltern und Freunde: Soziale Entwicklung im Jugendalter. Bern, Switzerland: Huber.

Jagenow, D., Raufelder, D. & Eid, M. (2013). Social relationships and academic motivation: a person-oriented approach. Educational Psychology. (submitted for review)

Keller, T.E. (2005). A systemic model of the youth mentoring intervention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26, 169–188. doi: 10.1007/s10935-005-1850-2 Lerner, R. M. (1986). Concepts and theories of human development (2nd ed.). New

York, NY: Random House.

Lerner, R. M. (1991). Changing organism–context relations as the basic process of

development: A developmental contextual perspective. Developmental Psychology, 27, 27–32. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.27.

Lerner, R. M. (1992). Final solutions: Biology, prejudice, and genocide. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Lerner, R. M. (1998). Theories of human development: Contemporary perspectives. In W. Damon (Series Ed. & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1 (5th Ed.): Theoretical models of human development (pp. 1–24). New York, NY: John Wiley.

Magnusson, D. (1990). Personality development from an interactional perspective. In L. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 193–222). New York, NY: Guilford.

Martin, A. J. (2008). Enhancing student motivation and engagement: The effects of a multidimensional intervention. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 239–269. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.11.003

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., & Berkeley, S. L. (2007). Peers helping peers. Educational Leadership, 64, pp. 54–58.

Mouratidis, A. A., Vansteenkiste, M., Sideridis, G., & Lens, W. (2011). Vitality

and Interest-Enjoyment as a Function of Class-to-Class Variation in Need-Supportive Teaching and Pupils’ Autonomous Motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 353–366. doi: 10.1037/a002277

Raufelder, D. (2007). Von Machtspielen zu Sympathiegesten. Marburg, Germany: Tectum. Rhodes, J. E., Spencer, R., Keller, T. E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A Model for the

Influence of Mentoring Relationships on Youth Development. Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 691-707. doi: 10.1002/jcop.20124

Savin-Williams, R. C., & Berndt, T. (1990). Friendship and peer relations. In S.

Feldmann & G. R. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold (pp. 277–307). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Schneider, T. (2004). The role of neuroticism on psychological and physiological stress responses. Journal of experimental Social Psychology, 40, 795–804. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.04.005

Topping, K. J. (2003). Peer assisted learning for inclusion. Literacy Today, 36, 22–23. Topping, K. J. & Ehly, S. W. (2001). Peer Assisted Learning: A Framework for

Consultation. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation, 12, 113–132. doi: 10.1207/S1532768XJEPC1202_03

Learning to teach in reform-minded ways as a context. Teaching and Teacher Education 23, 473–489. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2006.12.010

6. Appendix