Generalising from the Tutu context

This thesis has demonstrated PBE is more effective than formal education in promoting community wellbeing in the Tutu community. However can this be generalised? There are two levels of generalisation.

Generalisation 1: Indigenous education (or PBE) is more effective in promoting community wellbeing in indigenous communities than conventional education.

The first level is, given Tutu RTC represents indigenous education in an indigenous setting, can the study’s conclusion be generalised to all indigenous education in a predominantly indigenous setting? Specifically, is all indigenous education (or PBE) more effective in promoting community wellbeing in indigenous communities than conventional education? Though it is tempting to decide in the affirmative some rigour is required to be definitive. Postdevelopment thinkers would argue each indigenous region has their own diverse wellbeing criteria. In addition each indigenous education centre must determine its own brand of indigenous education (or PBE). However, though each situation is unique, it is likely the wellbeing criteria for indigenous groups are similar and would fit within the ‘people’ and ‘place’ dimensions of wellbeing presented in Chapter 3, the majority of which were discerned from indigenous writers. Furthermore, though autonomy means creating a group’s own education characteristics, the centre’s features will not deviate significantly from the five generic postdevelopment principles. Therefore this study concludes an education which adheres to the principles of autonomy, de/reconstruct, community and hybridity is more likely to foster connectedness in an indigenous context than conventional schooling.

Generalisation 2: PBE is more effective in enhancing community wellbeing in all community settings, than conventional education.

This wider generalisation of the thesis conclusion, namely that Tutu RTC is more effective than conventional education, posits that PBE is a more effective education option than formal schooling in all circumstances. Much of the literature reviewed and discussion

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resulting from it in this study has not been specific to Fiji or indigenous peoples. Indeed the arguments have been deliberately kept general even though the fieldwork was specific to Tutu in Taveuni, Fiji. The second and most profound generalisation, then, is argued through the literature, and the fieldwork is used merely as an illustration of it.

In the opening paragraph of this thesis Jones asks where should the balance be for education’s focus within the mix of moral – material aspects of education “so that human dignity, diversity, equity and freedom rest easy with tangible material needs” (2007:xii). This study refers to the ingredients of the Jones moral - material dilemma as intrinsic and material wellbeing. Clearly PBE positions that balance at the intrinsic end. Jones, a long- time researcher on the influence of the World Bank on education, argues formal western- style education is predominantly concerned with building human capital for economic growth and material wealth (2007:xii; 1995). Clearly Jones, and the evidence of this study, concludes western education has a predominantly material focus within education.

Many writers conclude economic growth is not sustainable (Schor, 2010; McEwan, 2009; Goulet, 1992). Growth creates pollution, disparate incomes leading to excessive wealth and abject poverty, depletion of resources, and global warming (Schor, 2010). Yet western school education, which has become compulsory global schooling, is primarily concerned with economic growth. On this basis education promotes a message that is ultimately destructive of wellbeing. However the alternative approach to education, PBE, promotes local solutions to building on local assets and local needs. Those needs and assets are seen as nourishing connectedness with people and places as well as material aspects of livelihood. PBE fosters relationships and connectedness which reduce income disparity and strive for equity, embrace diversity and preserve the environment. Clearly the alternative to conventional schooling, PBE, promotes sustainability.

Indigenous societies have a natural affinity for schooling, such as PBE, that emphasises intrinsic wellbeing (Penitito, 2004:18). However the strength of relationships engendered by intrinsic learning has the potential to create wellbeing for all peoples (Ryan and Deci, 2000; 2001). PBE also encourages autonomous learning that grants students the freedom to pursue their interests and exercise their competence (Littky, 2004). Autonomy, competence, and relationships are key to wellbeing and “thwarting these needs will result in negative psychological consequences in all social and cultural contexts” (Ryan and Deci, 2001:147). However western education’s emphasis is on material wellbeing at the

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expense of intrinsic values (Jones, 2007:xii). While material wellbeing is necessary for livelihood, when extrinsic goals for wealth and possessions exceed the essential livelihood needs, it leads to non-autonomous work and individualism which Ryan and Deci (2001:154) emphasise, reduce wellbeing. In its pursuit of material goals Gatto (2009:130) believes schools in all societies disconnect learners from their families, communities, traditions and adventure.

A system that diminishes intrinsic wellbeing, overemphasises extrinsic wellbeing, and undermines relatedness reducing wellbeing. In fact Jones (1995, 2007) and this study argue that conventional education overemphasises material wellbeing. Alternatively PBE, as has been argued, promotes community wellbeing through the very characteristics that are fundamental to it, autonomy and connectedness. Therefore this study concludes that the place-based alternative approach to education is more effective than conventional education in enhancing community wellbeing regardless of the makeup of the society in which it operates.