Generalizability of the Conclusions

The results of this study are potentially generalizable to the countries sharing several characteristics with Colombia both in terms of its national science, technology and innovation system (STIS)’s characteristics, dynamic and performance, and in terms of its overall social, political, historical, and macroeconomic conditions. More

importantly, in the author’s opinion the Colombian case is generalizable to those developing countries with a minimum level of absorptive capacity, that is, to those lacking the ability to take substantial advantage from the contributions made by their foreign scientific peers.

In this sense and as for the characteristics of the local STIS, the results can arguably be generalized to the following types of countries:

a) ‘S&T-Developing Countries’, defined by the InterAcademy Council (IAC) as those that have scientific and technological strength in one or more research areas but lack important aspects of S&T capacity in personnel, infrastructure, investment, institutions, and regulatory framework (IAC 2004)20;

20 _{The IAC classification also includes ‘S&T-Lagging Countries’, that is, those with little scientific or} technological research strengths and no discernable overall S&T capacity in the terms defined; ‘S&T- Proficient Countries; and ‘S&T-Advanced Countries.’ http://www.interacademycouncil.net/

b) Countries in the early stages of innovation system development, defined by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) as those that have

establishing threshold conditions for the emergency of innovation systems but still fail in promoting functional innovation systems for innovation-based growth (UNIDO 2005) 21; c) Countries with relatively low levels of ‘technological readiness’ or belonging to the ‘non-core countries’, defined by the World Economic Forum (WEF) as those that show relatively low scientific and technological absorption, slow pace of technological innovation, low levels of expenditure in R&D, few collaborations between academy and the business community, few patent registrations, and export mainly primary goods (WEF 2005).

d) ‘Latecomers’, defined by Archibugi and Coco as those that “in one way or another, try to stimulate their technology growth parallel to their development efforts: technological infrastructure and formation of human skills (but fail to achieve large numbers of technological innovations)” (Archibugi and Coco 2004)2223.

21 _{The UNIDO identifies 3 phases of innovation system development. In terms of the respective strategic} priorities, they consist of: first, establishing threshold conditions for the emergency of innovation systems; second, promoting functional innovation systems for innovation-based growth; and third, promoting the growth of differentiated and specialized innovation systems, which systematically generate innovative responses to emerging opportunities (UNIDO, 2005 p.73).

22 _{The ArCo Index is also used to classify the countries studied as ‘leaders,’ ‘potential leaders,’ and} ‘marginalized’.

23 _{Other efforts designed to group countries sharing similar characteristics and following similar patterns} include the Science and Technology Capacity Index produced for the RAND Corporation (Wagner, C. S., I. Brahmakulam, et al. (2001). Science and Technology Collaboration: Building Capacities in Developing Countries? Santa Monica, CA, RAND.); the Technology Achievement Index produced by the UN Development Program (UNDP (2001). Human Development Report 2001: Making New Technologies Work for Human Development. New York, Oxford University Press.); the Industrial Development Scoreboard produced by the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO (2002). Industrial Development Report 2002-2003. Competing through Innovation and Learning. Vienna, United Nations Industrial Development Organization.); and the S&T Capacity Index proposed by Sagasti (Sagasti, F.

Other relevant aspects to take into account to judge whether or not the

conclusions of this study can be generalized to other countries relate to the process of institutionalization of the local science and technology system that characterizes not only Colombia but also many developing countries. In fact –although far from satisfactorily meeting the definition of ‘National Innovation Systems’ proposed by Freeman, Lundvall or Nelson to describe the process of creation, diffusion and use of knowledge and

innovations- in some developing countries similar to Colombia there is actually a dynamic process of formalization of the production and support to S&T activities taking place. As Eduardo Martinez posits, Latin America seems to be experiencing at least 10 major changes having mixed effects on its transition toward knowledge-based societies. According to the author, these changes include: a) a transition from restrictive public policies to modernizing policies, where the focus on S&T activities is being replaced by a focus on innovation; b) a shift from an emphasis on the sustained supply of knowledge needed to meet long lasting social demands, to an emphasis on the short-term market demands of skills, techniques, and technologies; c) from traditional R&D management practices and resource allocation focused on control, to a more efficient management based on performance evaluation, and chain-link processes; d) from an intervening role of the Government in supporting R&D, to a role of Governments as facilitators of the creation of the so-called NISs; e) from a lack of quality control of the higher education system, to the demanding process of evaluation and accreditation now in place; f) a transition in progress toward smaller Governments; g) from formal guidance and

(2004). Knowledge and Innovation for Development: The Sisyphus Challenge of the 21st Century. Northampton, MA., Edward Elgar.)

regulation to institutional “laissez-faire”; h) an increased support to S&T policy design of multilateral organizations such as the Inter American Development Bank and the World Bank as well as a greater reliance on international cooperation; i) from ‘closed’ national systems to globalized R&D and localization strategies; and j) from nation-economies to region-economies and institutional networks of knowledge (Martinez 2005). According to the author these shifts are not necessarily leading to set the basis necessary for the purpose of the Latin American countries to become knowledge-based societies, and in most of the cases they seem to follow policies designed, followed and found successful in developed countries where the process of institutionalization is rather mature.

Similarly, aspects not directly associated with the local science, technology and innovation system’s characteristics, dynamics and performance that may also affect the applicability and generalizability of the conclusions of this study relate to a) the degree of openness to foreign science and technology; b) the levels of self confidence; c) the

vulnerability to external and internal chocks including international conflicts and

conjectural economic crises, among other. In many countries with similar STI systems to Colombia’s, these aspects may not mirror the Colombian case and therefore may not be comparable. However, to know how much these factors affect the generalizability of the conclusions of this study is hard to judge.

Finally, in the author’s opinion, the main differences between the Colombian case and other cases would be not so much on the direction and the characteristics of the impacts found but on the possibility for accounting for such impacts. As discussed earlier, to assess the effect of international research collaboration, it seems easier to use a developing country as a case study than a developed country, mostly because in the latter

case distinguishing between domestic and foreign partners is much harder. In addition, very few countries have the type of information that was used in this study. This is an issue discussed in the next section.