5. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
5.2. S CALE D EVELOPMENT AND I TEM C REATION
5.2.2. Generation of Items
Following Churchill (1979), the second step is to generate sample items that capture the specified domain of the constructs. This involves generating measurement items that stem from literature search, exploratory research, experience surveys and focus groups (Churchill, 1979). In order to generate the measurement items, a thorough literature search was utilised. This initial exploratory study involved experts’ opinions and a pilot study regarding the constructs (for details of these see sections 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 respectively).
In terms of existing literature search, an initial pool of items was first derived together with the measuring scales associated with them. The adaptation of items from the literature was done with the necessary changes in wording for each case. All relevant items for each construct were identified, but they were kept to a minimum in order to achieve parsimony (DeVellis, 2003). This initial item generation produced a total of 44 items. Table 5.1 presents the constructs, their associated measurement items and the literature sources from which they were obtained. Details for each construct are discussed analytically in the subsections below.
Table 5.1: Constructs’ Items and Sources
Construct Measurement Items Sources
1. Attitude
1.1. Overall my attitude towards acquiring music from each different music channel is good/bad.
Adapted from Fishbein and Ajzen
(1975) 1.2. Overall my attitude towards acquiring music from each different music channel is
favourable/unfavourable.
1.3. Overall my attitude towards acquiring music from each different music channel is foolish/wise.
1.4. Overall my attitude towards acquiring music from each different music channel is positive/negative.
2. Subjective Norm
2.1. My friends think that acquiring music from the various music channels is a good idea. Based on Taylor and Todd (1995a,b)
2.2. My friends’ opinion has strong influence on me. Adapted by Kwong
and Park (2008) 2.3. My family members think that acquiring music from the various music channels is a good idea. Based on Taylor and
Todd (1995a,b)
2.4. My families’ opinion has strong influence on me. Adapted by Kwong
and Park (2008) 2.5. Musicians who I respect would expect me to acquire music from each different music channel. Based on Taylor and
Todd (1995a,b) 2.6. The opinion of the musicians I respect has strong influence on me. Based on Kwong
and Park (2008) 3. Perceived
Behavioural Control
3.1. Acquiring music from various music channels is entirely within my control. Adapted by Yoon (2011)
3.2. I can find easily music channels to acquire the music I want. Based on Yoon
(2011) 3.3. I know many music channels that provide the music I want.
4. Perceived Quality of Music
4.1. Sound quality is an important factor when deciding to obtain music. Adapted by Plowman and Goode (2009) 4.2. The music files provided by Internet music stores have better quality than those available from
P2P sites. Based on Plowman
and Goode (2009) 4.3. CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores have better sound quality than counterfeit CDs.
4.4. CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores have better sound quality than MP3 files from P2P sites.
4.5. If MP3 music files were of a lesser quality, I would be more likely to buy a CD from a bricks-and-mortar store than download it.
Adapted by Plowman and Goode (2009)
5. Perceived Benefit of Piracy
5.1. Downloading MP3 files from P2P sites saves me a lot of money.
Based on Yoon (2011) 5.2. Buying counterfeit CDs from street vendors saves me a lot of money.
5.3. Downloading MP3 files from P2P sites saves me a lot of time.
5.4. Buying counterfeit CDs from street vendors saves me a lot of time.
5.5. If I pirate music, I would posses a larger music collection.
5.6. If I pirate music, I will be able to obtain easier rare songs/albums. Researcher’s Item
6. Price of Legitimate Music
6.1. I believe that digital MP3 files are overpriced. Based on Al- Rafee
and Cronan (2006) 6.2. I believe that music CD’s are overpriced.
6.3. A rise in the price of music CDs would lead me to engage more in music piracy. Adapted by Plowman and Goode (2009) 6.4. A rise in the price of MP3 files from Internet music stores would lead me to engage in more
piracy. Based on Plowman
and Goode (2009) 6.5. I compare prices for the best value of money, when I buy music.
7. Perceived Likelihood of
Punishment
7.1. It is very likely that someone who downloads illegally MP3 files from P2P sites would be caught and prosecuted.
Based on Moores et al. (2009) 7.2. It is very likely that someone who buys counterfeit CDs from street vendors would be caught and
prosecuted.
7.3. It is very easy for law enforcement authorities to identify owners of illegal MP3 files.
7.4. It is very easy for law enforcement authorities to identify buyers of counterfeit CDs.
7.5. I do not think that I would get caught, if I buy counterfeit CDs.
7.6. I do not think that I would get caught, if I download from P2P sites.
8. Idolatry
8.1. I like to discuss with my friends about the activities of my favourite singer/band.
Chiou et al. (2005a) 8.2. It is really a wonderful time to attend a concert of my favourite singer/band.
8.3. I like to have a talk with those who also like my favourite singer/band.
8.4. It is very interesting to know the daily life of my favourite singer/band.
8.5. I like to watch or hear the news about my favourite singer/band.
8.6. I like to follow the news on Twitter and/or Facebook of my favourite singer/band. Researcher’s Item 9. Intention
9.1. I will acquire music form the channel I prefer for myself.
Based on Wang et al.
(2005) 9.2. I will acquire music form the channel I prefer for my friends and family.
9.3. I will recommend my friends and family to acquire music form the channel I prefer.
5.2.2.1. Attitude towards Music Acquisition from Various Music Channels
According to Ajzen’s (1985, 1988, 1989 and 1991) TPB, the attitude towards a given behaviour is dealing with the favourableness or un-favourableness feeling toward the performance of a certain behaviour (see Ajzen, 1985). The construct of Attitude, being a construct within the TPB, was adopted by literature regarding TPB. The measurement scales provided by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) were used for this construct. Based on the above the following items were generated:
1. Overall my attitude towards buying/downloading music from (a) bricks-and-mortar stores, (b) illegal street vendors / (c) Internet music shops, (d) P2P sites, is …
(a) good/bad,
(b) favourable/unfavourable, (c) foolish/wise,
(d) positive/negative.
The possible response is a seven point Likert scale from the one extreme to another in each case.
5.2.2.2. Subjective Norms towards Music Acquisition from Various Music Channels Consumers are susceptible to interpersonal influences and subjective norm is defined as the need to identify with or enhance one’s image in the opinion of others through the acquisition and use of various products (Ajzen, 1991). The items for subjective norms usually contain questions about whether “significant others” approve or disapprove the behaviour under examination.
The items to measure subjective norms were adapted from or based on Taylor and Todd (1995a, b) and Kwong and Park (2008). The following items are included with respect to channel a) bricks-and-mortar stores:
1. My friends think that buying CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores is a good idea.
2. My friends’ opinion has strong influence on me.
3. My family members think that buying CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores is a good idea.
4. My families’ opinion has strong influence on me.
5. Musicians who I respect would expect me to buy from bricks-and-mortar stores.
6. The opinion of the musicians I respect has strong influence on me.
The possible response is a seven point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to
“Strongly Agree”. Questions 1, 3 and 5 were asked again with the necessary rewarding in order to capture subjective norms for the three remaining channels. Questions 2, 4 and 6 were omitted when examining each channel, as they remain exactly the same for each case.
5.2.2.3. Perceived Behavioural Control towards Music Acquisition from Various Music Channels
According to Ajzen (1985), perceived behavioural control is a measure that shows how easy or difficult it is for individuals to perform the behaviour under examination. Ajzen (2002) suggests the use of both a self-efficacy measure (whether the individuals believe they have the ability to perform the behaviour) and a control measure (whether the individuals believe they have control over performing the
behaviour). Measures used in this questionnaire are based on measures used before by Yoon (2011). The items used with respect to bricks-and-mortar stores are the following:
1. Buying CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores is entirely within my control.
2. I can find easily bricks-and-mortar stores to buy the music CDs I want.
3. I can find easily bricks-and-mortar stores that sell the music CDs I want.
Again all items were rephrased in order to capture the PBCs for all channels of music acquisition. The items again were measured in a seven point Likert scale ranging from
“Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree” (since from now this is the case for all other items this information was omitted in order to avoid repetition).
5.2.2.4. Perceived Quality of Music
The perceived quality of music construct is important in this analysis because various channels of music acquisition are examined. If individuals believe that the audio quality of music CDs is superior to that of online music, then it is likely to prefer the physical product compared to the legal or illegal MP3s. Similarly, if they believe that copyrighted CDs or MP3 files bought from bricks-and-mortar stores or Internet music shops respectively are better quality than their counterparts (counterfeit CDs from street vendors or MP3s from P2P sites) then again they might prefer to buy music instead of pirating music. On the other hand, if they feel that there is no difference among various music formats (digital/physical, legal/illegal) then they might be more inclined to download music for free or buy the cheaper product although counterfeit. Finally, since some individuals may not consider sound quality to be important factor when deciding to acquire music another item is required to capture that.
Following the previous studies of Plowman and Goode (2009) that dealt with the issue of quality for digital piracy, the following items were used:
1. Sound quality is an important factor when deciding to obtain music.
2. The music files provided by Internet music stores have better sound quality than those available from P2P sites.
3. CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores have better sound quality than counterfeit CDs.
4. CDs from bricks-and-mortar stores have better sound quality than MP3 files from P2P sites.
5. If MP3 music files were of a lesser quality, I would be more likely to buy a CD from a bricks-and-mortar store than download it.
5.2.2.5. Perceived Benefits of Piracy
The perceived benefits of piracy construct is important in this study because it is possible for individuals to believe that by pirating music, they save either money (because it is free for P2P sites and cheaper for counterfeit CDs from street vendors), or time (faster to download a song than going to the bricks-and-mortar store; easier to obtain a CD from a street vendor because she/he wonders around in public areas trying to promote her/his products). Another possible benefit of piracy is the belief that through piracy one can have a larger music collection, mainly because it is free, but also because some P2P users are collectors of music and they give the entire collection of an artist, readily available for every other user. Finally, a benefit of piracy that has not been examined before in the literature is the belief that one can obtain easily rare music that
might be hard to find to the restricted space of a bricks-and-mortar store. Therefore, the following items adopted from Yoon (2011) were used:
1. Downloading MP3 files from P2P sites saves me a lot of money.
2. Buying counterfeit CDs from street vendors saves me a lot of money.
3. Downloading MP3 files from P2P sites saves me a lot of time.
4. Buying counterfeit CDs from street vendors saves me a lot of time.
5. If I pirate music, I would possess a larger music collection.
6. If I pirate music, I will be able to obtain easier rare songs/albums.
5.2.2.6. Price of Legitimate Music
Two issues need to be examined here. The first is whether the acquisition of music from the legal channels is considered overpriced from the perspective buyers and the second is whether a rise in the price of the product acquired through the legal channels, will lead individuals to obtain the product from the cheaper/free illegal channel. The second is the idea whether price comparison is important for music acquisition. Based on that and on the literature of Plowman and Goode (2009) the following items are included:
1. I believe that digital MP3 files are overpriced.
2. I believe that music CD’s are overpriced.
3. A rise in the price of music CDs would lead me to engage more in music piracy.
4. A rise in the price of MP3 files from Internet music stores would lead me to engage in more piracy.
5. I compare prices for the best value of money, when I buy music.
5.2.2.7. Perceived Likelihood of Punishment
Assessing the possible deterrent effect of legislation, the perceived likelihood of punishment from the illegal action for individuals acquiring music through the illegal (pirate) channels is examined. The perceived likelihood of punishment is defined as the perception that anyone that engages in an illegal action (music piracy in this case) will be caught and prosecuted. This is closely connected with the effectiveness of the law enforcement authorities and the fear of being caught. Hence based on the relevant literature of Moores et al. (2009) the following six items for this construct were included:
1. It is very likely that someone who downloads illegally MP3 files from P2P sites would be caught and prosecuted.
2. It is very likely that someone who buys counterfeit CDs from street vendors would be caught and prosecuted.
3. It is very easy for law enforcement authorities to identify owners of illegal MP3 files.
4. It is very easy for law enforcement authorities to identify buyers of counterfeit CDs.
5. I do not think that I would get caught, if I buy counterfeit CDs.
6. I do not think that I would get caught, if I download from P2P sites.
5.2.2.8. Idolatry
As discussed extensively in Chapter 3 specific singer/band idolisation can change the decision to acquire music from different channels for reasons of identification and for not wanting to hurt their idol singers/bands.
Following mainly the study of Chiou et al. (2005a), the research tries to determine the degree of idolatry of the respondents with respect to singers/bands using the following set of questions:
1. I like to discuss with my friends about the activities of my favourite singer/band.
2. It is really a wonderful time to attend a concert of my favourite singer/band.
3. I like to have a talk with those who also like my favourite singer/band.
4. It is very interesting to know the daily life of my favourite singer/band.
5. I like to watch or hear the news about my favourite singer/band.
6. I like to follow the news on Twitter and/or Facebook of my favourite singer/band.
5.2.2.9. Behavioural Intention towards General Acquisition of Music
According to Ajzen’s (1985, 1988, 1989, 1991) TPB, intention to perform a given behaviour (in this case to acquire music) is a central factor in the theory. Intention is assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence behaviour and they are an indication of the amount of effort individuals are planning to exert in the future in order to perform the behaviour. Following Wang et al. (2005) the following three items were included:
1. I will buy music CDs form a bricks-and-mortar store for myself.
2. I will buy music CDs form a bricks-and-mortar store for my friends and family.
3. I will recommend my friends and family to buy music CDs form bricks-and-mortar stores.
Since the aim is to capture intention for all four channels the above three items were rephrased accordingly.