Abbasid Caliphate(750–1258). The reign of the caliphs that ruled from the capital of Baghdad.
al-insan al-kamil ‘The person who has reached perfection’ or, more simply, the ‘Perfect Man’. Made with reference to the Prophet Muham-mad specifically, but also considered the goal for Muslims to aspire to.
AsharismThe school of theology founded by Ashari (d. 936).
dar al-harbThe ‘house of war’ is a reference to countries that are not within the Islamic realm.
dar al-Islam The ‘house of Islam’ to distinguish this Islamic realm from the
‘house of war’.
dar al-salam The ‘house of peace’, which is another term for the ‘house of Islam’.
dawa Literally means ‘issuing a summons’, usually a term to describe proselytizing in Islam.
dhimmisNon-Muslims living in Islamic territory.
emanation Term used in Neoplatonism to describe the modes of being that derive from the Absolute being.
eudaimoniaGreek term for personal well-being.
ex nihiloLatin term which means‘out of nothing’.
falasifahPhilosopher.
falsafaPhilosophy.
fiqh Islamic jurisprudence. It is the rulings and judgments that derive from sharia.
ghazwaMilitary expedition, battle, or raid.
hadithSayings ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad.
HanbalitesSchool of law, which can be traced back to Ibn Hanbal (d. 855).
ijtihadA legal term to describe independent reasoning.
IlluminationismPersian Islamic philosophy that was influenced by Neoplatonic thought especially.
iman Belief.
IsmailismA branch of Shia Islam also known as ‘Seveners’.
Jabarites An early Islamic school of philosophy that supported predestination.
jahiliyya ‘Age of ignorance’ with specific reference to the time before Islam, but also a reference to any peoples or places that are not considered Islamic.
jihad Literally ‘struggle’ which has many meanings, though most frequently associated with war.
jus ad bellumLatin for ‘right to war’.
jus in belloLatin for‘justice in war’.
Kabaa cuboid-shaped structure in Mecca. It is the holiest site in Islam and the centre for pilgrimage.
kafir The name for an unbeliever.
kalam Literally ‘speech’ or ‘words’, but more generally the term used for Islamic theology.
khalifahThe ruler of the Muslim community, usually translated as‘Caliph’.
kharijitesThose who initially supported the fourth caliph, Ali, but then rejected his authority and subscribed to a particular view on what constitutes a good Muslim.
logosPure intellect.
MahdiIn Shia Islam this is the twelfth Imam on his return.
maslaha Public good.
mihnaLiterally means‘testing’ and refers to the Islamic inquisition in the ninth century.
mufti A scholar of Islamic law.
Mujahidin Literally meaning ‘strugglers’ or those engaged in jihad, it has come to have more specific reference to members of militant Islamic groups.
mumin Name for a believer.
MurjitesAn early Islamic school of philosophy.
muruwahMeans‘courage’, ‘patience’, ‘endurance’ etc., and is believed to be a quality that the Bedouin in particular possessed.
Glossary of terms 173
Muslim Brotherhood The Arab world’s oldest Islamic movement, founded in Egypt in 1928.
mutakallim Theologian.
MutazilitesAn early Islamic school of philosophy/theology which emphasizes rational thought.
Neoplatonism A mystical philosophy that has its origins in the third century.
PirA title for a Sufi master.
Qadarites An early Islamic school of philosophy/theology that believed God endowed Man with free will.
qadiA judge.
qitalThe actual act of physicalfighting.
QuranThe holy scripture of Islam.
Ramadan The ninth month of the Islamic calendar.
RashidunThe‘rightly-guided’, which refers to the first four caliphs.
Salafiyya Modern reformist movement that models itself on the early Islamic era.
salam‘Peace’.
samaPart of the Sufi ritual which may involve dancing, singing etc.
ShariaThe body of Islamic law derived from the traditional Islamic sources.
Shia The ‘party of Ali’; those who believe that Islamic leadership should be within the family of the Prophet Muhammad. Today they constitute about 10 per cent of the Muslim population.
shuraArabic for‘consultation’.
Sufi The mystical tradition within Islam.
Sunni The ‘people of tradition’ who represent about 90 per cent of the world’s Muslim population.
tadrijProgressive revelation.
tafsir The act of interpretation.
takfir The practice of declaring someone an unbeliever.
tawhid‘Unity’.
theomorphic manAnother term for‘Perfect Man’, see al-insan al-kamil above.
ulama The class of Islamic scholars.
174 Glossary of terms
ummaMeaning ‘nation’ or ‘community’, particularly the people of Islam as a whole, regardless of race or ethnicity.
Umayyad (661–750) The reign of the caliphs that ruled from the capital of Damascus.
via negativa From the Greek ‘to deny’; a theological notion that God can only be understood by describing what He is not.
vilayat-i faqihA Shia notion of‘guardianship by the clergy’.
zakat Alms-giving.
Glossary of terms 175
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Index
Abbas the Great, 68
Abbasid Caliphate (reign of Caliphs), 48, 172; andfirst Muslim philosophers, 24, 27, 34; Greek and Persian legacy, 13, 19, 20 Abduh, Muhammad, 115
abortion, 113–16 Aboul-Enein, H.Y., 147
Abraham (Biblicalfigure), 85, 156 Abu Bakr (Companion of Prophet), 121,
122
Academy (Plato), 9, 11, 12
Achievement of Happiness, The (Alfarabi), 42 acquired knowledge, 66, 67, 68, 70 acquisition, 32–3
Active Intellect, 46, 47, 61, 62, 70, 77;
see also intellect
Adam and Eve, 69, 78, 138 Advisory Council of the Cultural
Revolution, Iran, 72 aesthetics, 4
after-life, and soul see soul, and after-life Against the Christians (Porphyry), 14–15 Ahadiyya movement, 127–8
Alexander‘the Great’ (356–323BC), 9 Alexandria (city), 9, 10, 14; Arab conquest,
11, 17; Library, 11–12, 21; Museum, 11;
War (AD47/48), 12
Alfarabi (Abu- Nas.r Muh.ammad ibn Muh.ammad al-Fa-ra-bı-), Second Teacher, 34, 37, 41–8, 60, 61–2, 153; and Avicenna, 50, 52, 60; and emanation, 44–5, 46, 47; and Neoplatonism, 43, 45, 62
Ali (r. 656–61), caliph, 24, 25 Ali, Amir, 136
al-insan al-kamil (Perfect Man) see Perfect Man
Alkindi (Abu Yu-suf Ya’qu-b ibn ‘Ish.a-q as.-S.abba-h. al-Kindı-), father of Islamic philosopher, 33–7
al-Qaeda, 132, 133
Alrazi (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya-Ra-zı-), Persian philosopher, 37–9
Amr ibn al-’As (c. 573–664), military governor of Palestine, 10, 11, 15 Anaxagoras (pre-Socratic philosopher), 3,
ancient Greek philosophers, 3, 5, 13, 34, 35, 36, 152; see also Aristotle; Plato;
Socrates Aquinas, St Thomas, 29, 50, 51,
52, 131
Arabi (Abu- ‘Abdilla-h Muh.ammad ibn
‘Alı- ibn Muh.ammad ibn ‘Arabı-), Andalusian philosopher and Sufi mystic, 76, 78–82
Arabian peninsula, 10, 97, 157
Aristotle, 3, 5, 10, 13, 17, 34, 35, 41, 55, 67, 69, 96, 152; on logic, 42, 44;
Lyceum, 9, 11, 12; Metaphysics, 49;
Perfect Actuality, 45; Physics, 43; Politics, 20; Pure Actuality, 45, 47; on purpose, 43–4, 45, 56, 57, 59; On the soul, 19, 43, 60; on soul, 56, 57, 58–9, 61; Unmoved Mover of, 15, 43, 44, 45; see also Neoplatonism (mystical philosophy) articulation problem, 167–8
Ashari (Abu- al-Hasan Alı- ibn Isma-’ı-l al-Ash’arı-), Arab theologian, 31–3 Asharism (theology school), 31, 172 Assembly of Muslim Jurists of America
(AMJA), 123 Rushd), interpreter of Aristotle, 41, 54–6, 62, 153; Incoherence of the Incoherence, 42, 63 Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Persian philosopher,
37, 41, 48–52, 60, 61; as Illuminationist, 65; and Necessary Being, 51
Being, 70, 71, 103; First Being, 45, 46;
Necessary Being, 51
bismillah al-rahman al-rahim (in the name of God), 1
al-Bitriq, Yahya ibn, 19 Blake, W., 15
blame, 33
body, duty of care for, 117 Book and the Qur’an: A Contemporary
Interpretation (Shahrur), 99 Book of Music, The (Alfarabi), 42
Book of the Exposition of the Methods of Proof Regarding the Beliefs of the Religion (Averroes), 62
Brahman, 18
Brahmimah (Indian philosophical school), 18
Breaking the Idols of Paganism and Transcendental Wisdom (Mulla Sadra),
Catholicism, 74, 111, 118; and ordination of women, 122
Celebi (Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad), Rumi’s son, 76, 77, 78
Centre for the Spread of Islamic Teachings, Chishti Sufi Order, 78104
Christianity, 13, 14, 19, 130; Catholicism, 74, 111, 118; Coptic Christians, 11;
versus Islam, 95; Orthodox Christian Church, 10; paganism, attacks on, 12;
on suffering, 112–13; Trinity, 9, 10, 28, 29 Cicero (106–43BC), 130, 131, 132 civilization, Islamic, 2
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (Huntington), 149, 150 Cleopatra’s Needle, 11
cloning, 116–17
Commentary on the Timaeus (Alrazi), 37 Confederation of Iranian Students, 105 consciousness, 85–6
Index 181
conservative approach, 153–4
dar al-harb (‘house of war,’ countries not within Islamic realm), 135, 172 dar al-Islam (‘house of Islam’), 135, 172 dar al-salam (‘house of peace’), 135, 172 Dark Ages, 12, 14
darkness, 66
dawa (proselytizing), 135, 172 al-Dawla, Saif, 42
Dawud, Abu, 119
Day of Judgement, 57, 114, 117 death, fear of, 39
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789, 152
Defoe, D., 159
Dehlawi, Sha-h Walı-ulla-h, 164–5 Deliverance (Avicenna), 52 democracy, 90, 93, 96, 98, 102;
theo-democracy, 99
Democritus (pre-Socratic philosopher), 20 Descartes, René (father of modern Western
philosophy), 47, 51, 86, 87 determinism, 109; versus free will, 33 Development of Metaphysics in Persia, The
(Iqbal), 82 Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
(Rousseau), 94
Egypt, 10, 73; Muslims in, 12, 13 Eickleman, D.F., 99
emanation (World-Soul), 16, 44–5, 46, 47, 66, 172
embryo, use of, 114 Empedocles, 69 empirical experience, 67 End of History and the Last Man,
The (Fukuyama), 149 epistemology, 4, 60, 66, 69, 71 essence, 47, 70, 81
ethical dilemmas, 109–29; abortion, 113–16;
cloning, 116–17; ending life, 117–18;
homosexuality, 118–20; non-Muslims, rights of, 125–9; problem of suffering, evil and health, 109–13; women’s rights, 120–5
ethical pluralism, 141, 158–60, 163 ethnicity, 3
ethnocentricity, 163 Eucharist, 10
Euclid of Alexandria, 20
eudaimonia (personal well-being), 56, 172 evil, 29–30, 52, 66; ethical dilemmas,
109–13; moral, 109, 110; physical or natural, 109, 110
ex nihilo (out of nothing), 36, 38, 43, 172
existential self, 96 existentialists, 67, 83
expansion and contraction, 74, 75 faith: versus actions, 25; versus reason,
64–87; versus submission, 24
Fardid, Ahmad (Iranian philosopher), 102, 103
fasting, Ramadan, 2, 23 Ferguson, D.S., 164
fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), 5, 6, 31, 172 First Being, 45, 46
First Principles of the Islamic State (Mawdudi), 91, 127
Four Intellectual Journeys, The (Mulla Sadra), 68–9, 70–1
free will, 4, 78, 97, 154; versus determinism, 33; and early Muslim philosophers, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33 freedom, 107 Ghazzali (Abu- H.mid Mua-ammad ibn
Muh.ammad al-Ghazza-lı-), Islamic theologian, 20, 41, 42, 56, 60, 63, 155 ghiyar (law of differentiation), 126 Gibbon, E., 11, 12
Gnosticism, 9
God: attributes, 32, 76, 80, 81; belief in, 2, 3; as beyond definition, 51–2; binding of Man to, 95; as essence and existence, 47, 81; as Father, Son and Holy Spirit, 9, 10;
immateriality, 46, 51; justice of, 29–30, 111; knowledge of, 53–4; light of, 67, 76; mankind created in image of, 76, 80;
omnipotence, 32, 111; and Perfect Man, 76; perfection of, 45, 47; Quranic, 47;
reflection upon Himself, 45–6; and soul, 38; submitting to will of, 23, 111, 112;
as supreme consciousness, 85, 86; and theology, 4; see also monotheism;
polytheism; Unmoved Mover, of Aristotle
Good Intentions Principle, 131, 133 good Muslim, being, 2, 27; Kharijites
(those with particular view on what constitutes a good Muslim), 24–6, 173 Goodness, 24, 46, 66, 77
Gospel, 139
grammar, and logic, 43
Greek philosophy, and Hellenism, 8–13
Grotius, Hugo, 130 group allegiance, 3
hadith (sayings ascribed to Prophet Muhammad), 41, 98, 110, 112, 172, 179; and Islamic philosophy, 5, 7; and rights of women, 121, 122 founder of Habali school of law, 29, 31, 172
Hellenism, 17, 21; and Greek philosophy, 8–13; Hellenic culture, 8, 9, 103 Heraclitus (pre-Socratic philosopher), 20 Hermeneutical Expansion, The (Soroush), 71 hermeneutics, 99; importance, 163–7; and Soroush, 72, 73;‘of suspicion’, 166–7 Hinduism, 19, 29, 89, 160, 161 Hiroshima, 134
History for the Development of Philosophy, A (Shariati), 104
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The (Gibbon), 11
Hobbes, Thomas (English political philosopher), 94, 144
Holy Roman Empire, 12 homosexuality, 118–20
House of Wisdom, 13, 17, 18, 19–21 human rights, 150–6; conservative
approach, 153–4; international, 152–3;
liberal Islam, 154–6; moral relativism, 151–2
Human Rights in Islam (Mawdudi), 153 humanity, 23, 24, 25, 39, 47
Index 183
Hume, David (Scottish empiricist
‘ibn al-kalam (science of discourse), 5 Ideals and Realities of Islam (Nasr), 86 ideologies, 93
idolatry, 139, 140 ignorance, 83, 157, 173
ijtihad (independent reasoning), 93, 173 illness, 110, 112
Illuminationism, 64–7, 75, 173; and Neoplatonism, 65–6
Incoherence of the Philosophers (Ghazzali), 20, 41 India: Mughal reign, 160; and Persia,
17–19
inshallah (if God will it), 109 Inside the Gender Jihad (Wadud), 124 intellect, 4, 16, 45, 87, 122; First, Second
and Tenth Intellect, 46; imaginative, 59;
passable, 59; pure, 44, 52; see also Active Intellect
intellectual independence of Islam, 95, 96 intermediate position, 31
international human rights, 152–3 Intimations, The (Suhrawardi), 64 Introduction to History (Ibn Khaldun), 5 Iqbal, Sir Muhammad (philosopher, poet
and politician), 82–7, 88, 106, 128–9;
Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, 84–5, 95
Iran, 100–1; Revolution of 1979, 101, 102, 103, 107, 155; see also Khomeini (Ruhollah Mostafavi Musavi Khomeini), Grand Ayatollah of Iran
Iraq, 10, 101
Isagogue (Porphyry), 14
Isfahan (capital city, Safavid dynasty), 68
Islam: as belief in God, 2, 3; versus Christianity, 95; contextualization of, 99;
conversion from, 98; defined, 1–3;
diversity within, 2; historical perspective, 2; intellectual independence, 95, 96; just war theory applied to, 145–8; liberal, 154–6; and Neoplatonism (mystical philosophy), 16, 17; and shared moral values, 149–68; and state, 88–108; see also good Muslim, being; Muslim, being Islam in Perspective (Bannerman), 95 Islamic Council, 153
Islamic Culture Group, Tehran, 72 Islamic Government: Guardianship by the Clergy
(Khomeini), 101
Islamic philosophy, 1–7; defined, 6;
definition of Islam, 1–3; definition of philosophy, 3–4; fragility, 1; ‘sciences,’
4–6
Islamic sources see sources (Islamic) Ismailism (branch of Shia Islam), 48, 173 Isocrates (Athenian orator), 8
Jabarites (early Islamic school), 26–7, 173 jahiliyya (age of ignorance), 83, 142, 157,
173 Jainism, 161
Jamaat-i-Islami (‘Islamic Party’), 89 Jesus Christ, 137, 140, 156; as Messiah, 95 jihad (struggle), 173; Banna on, 141–3;
high and low, 141; Islamic sources, 136–8, 140–1; lesser, 136; Mawdudi on, 143–5; meaning, 136; Qutb on, 141–3;
see also just war theory
Jihad in Islam (Mawdudi), 142, 144 Judaeo–Christian tradition, 150 Judaism, 16
Julianus Augustus, 14
Jundishapur school, Persia, 17, 18 jus ad bellum (right to war), 130, 132, 133,
173; modern rules, 131
jus in bello (justice in war), 130, 133, 134, 173; modern rules, 131–2
Just Cause Principle, 131, 132, 142 just war theory: applied to Islam, 145–8;
dialogue and conflict resolution, importance, 138–40; Discrimination
dialogue and conflict resolution, importance, 138–40; Discrimination