The multilevel governance of integration and the local context of integration have been increasingly emphasized in research on integration recently, shifting the focus from the national to local and city level of integration management.196 Cities in particular, both in America and in Europe, have gained much attention recently as the context for immigrant incorporation and a main unit of analysis in migration research and networks. The city usually attracts immigrants and, using the demographer Audrey Singer‘s terminology, is the first
195
Ray, B. (2002). Immigrant Integration: Building to Opportunity. Migration Information Source. 196
International Metropolis Project is a sign of these trends. It is an international network for
comparative research and public policy development on migration, diversity, and immigrant integration in cities around the world.
Other examples of similar international networks include OPENCities, or Eurocities, see subchapter 4.4.
For extensive research on the role of the city for immigrant integration see:
- Brettell, C. (2003). Bringing the City Back In: Cities as Context for Immigrant Incorporation. In N. Foner (Ed.), American Arrivals: Anthropology Engages the New Immigration (pp. 163-195), Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.
- Hanley, L. and Blair, M., et al. (Eds.). (2008). Immigration and Integration in Urban Communities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press;
- Kasinitz, P. et. al, op. cit.;
- Singer, A., Hardwick, S. W., and Brettell, C. B. (Eds.). (2008). Twenty-First-Century Gateways: Immigrant Incorporation in Suburban America. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press;
- Fonseca, M. L. (2008). Cities in Movement: Migrants and Urban Change. Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Geográficos.
- Musterd, S., Ostendorf, W. J. M., and Breebaart, M. (1998). Multi-ethnic Metropolis: Patterns and Policies. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
“gateway” to immigrants’ opportunities in a new host country. Municipalities in turn, can open the gates for immigrants and turn into real “moderators of integration.”197
As suggested earlier, the focus on the local perspective should not be detached from national and global trends in integration policies. Although some researchers postulate a diminishing role for national decisions regarding migration management at the local level as an outcome of globalization, multilevel governance involving national migration and
integration policies should not be neglected.198 However, it is at the local level that best or worst practices of immigrant integration management reflect the impact of the lack of top- down supranational or national measures. As Demetrios G. Papademetriou points out: “Ultimately, it is at the local level that practical ideas are tested, adapted, and re-tested.”199 Looking at cities’ institutional design of integration management, one can gather more insights into the applicability and reasons for national integration frameworks, which is one argument for the importance of gathering knowledge and doing research on integration best practices. Two other arguments are also worth mentioning here.
One is the need to raise interest in the subject of integration among the local host society and policymakers, even if the subject remains taboo or is rarely discussed.
Accordingly, collecting data on one city and then comparing it with that from another will lead to further monitoring, evaluation, and healthy competition. In fact, the platform of comparison may motivate municipalities to focus more on forming “developmentally attentive
communities” for immigrants.200 Finally, research on good practices for integration management produces dialogues and encourages partnership between scholars and practitioners on integration. As Delgado rightly indicates, out of such cooperation there are “two-sided benefits: practitioners need the proof of their effectiveness, and academics must be able to join practitioners to increase their relevance in helping to shape practice and social policy.”201 In fact, social science seems to lag behind in applying its results in practice, and a cooperation between researchers and integration practitioners might be a good way to change that.
It should be noted, however that best practice research is generally a never ending process, like “a journey without a final destination.”202 It is quite obvious that there will always be something that could be done better in the local approach to immigrants and possibly adapted from other promising practices. Researching “what works and how or what does not
197
Bommes, M. (2008), op. cit., p. 187. 198
For the state of the art of the researchers’ and public debates on the integration policies in local communities see ibid., p. 160.
199
Papademetriou, D. G. (2003, October). Policy Considerations for Immigrant Integration. Migration Information Source.
200
Benson, J. (2007), op. cit., p. 53, (see subchapter 2.3.)
201
Delgado, M., Jones K., and Rohani M., op. cit., p. 16.
202
work and why” stimulates mutual learning from others’ experience and its adaptation to other contexts.
3 Transatlantic Research: Framework, Scope and Methodology
Taking into account the current economic crisis and subsequent changes in the global division of labor, it is controversial to what extent Europe and North America will remain attractive to immigrants in the near future. However, according to the UN statistics these two regions have had the fastest growing share of migrants in total population since 1990 (with the estimates for North America 14.2%, and Europe 9.5% of the population in 2010).203 Two significant immigrant destinations are located in these two regions: the European Union (the union of 27 member states) and the United States of America. While they may have different migration experiences and migration histories with heterogeneous immigrant groups, they share similar domestic policy concerns with regard to migration. As transatlantic researchers point out, on the issue of immigration in the EU and the US there is a similar split between public opinion on the one hand and academics on the other. The public fears are directed at massive inflows of immigrants and their allegedly negative impact on social cohesion, security and the labor market. According to some public opinion polls, a general belief exists that immigrants lower wages, raise competitiveness, and overburden the welfare system. On the other hand, some economists and demographers emphasize the long range positive effects of immigration. Immigrants, they argue, sustain population growth in the aging Western Democracies, counterbalance the increasing brain drain, and stimulate the economy.204
Although North America and Europe are still the main immigrant destination targets, this preference might soon change for certain groups of migrants. The global economy now makes alternative career paths possible in many parts of the world for the most talented people. In the increasing competition for “global talent the EU and the US have started thinking about how to attract highly qualified immigrants to their countries.”205 Additionally, they have to start considering how to encourage the educated migrants to stay and how to make use of the potential of many immigrants overrepresented in the low skilled sector. Immigrant integration policies on both sides of the Atlantic represent an appropriate tool to
203
United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs. (n.d.). International Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision, Population Database.
According to UN definition North America consists of 5 countries (Bermuda, Canada, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the United States of America), while Europe consists of 50 countries (for the whole list of 50 countries, see the online source “Definition of major areas and regions” at
http://esa.un.org/migration/index.asp?panel=3). 204
For more on statistical reports in reference to US and EU demography and economy see: - Piirto, J., et.al. (Eds.). (2010). Europe in Figures. Eurostat Yearbook 2010. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities;
- Wadhwa, V. (2009, March 12). A Reverse Brain Drain. Issues in Science and Technology; - Papademetriou, D. G., Sumption, M, and Somerville, W. (2009). Migration and the Economic Downturn: What to Expect in the European Union. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. 205
Papademetriou, D. G., Somerville, W., and Tanaka, H. (2008). Talent in the 21st Century Economy. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
address all of the abovementioned concerns: public fears as well as demographic and economic needs. As transatlantic researchers point out: “the public is unlikely to be
convinced by the economic benefits of immigration unless people see immigration working at the local level.”206 The exchange of experience and forming comparative transatlantic
frameworks between the US and the EU can assist in finding solutions to common
challenges. Apart from the research aims highlighted in the last chapter, this study seeks to contribute to this transatlantic dialogue and transatlantic research methods.
This chapter introduces the reader to the rationale, design, and methods of the transatlantic study against the background of existing and newly developing models of transatlantic cooperation within the field of integration policies. It explains the selection process of case studies and research methodology. Furthermore, it presents research guidelines. Then, the main points of investigation are presented in the criteria catalog of measures for labor market integration of immigrant youth. Finally, the empirical research guidelines for interview questions are summarized.