Step 1
.05
Sex
.09
TAI-T
.10*
SRAS-D
.02
Step 2
.37
Baseline Exam
.08
Step 3
.37
Prompt
.02
Note. * p < .05.
69 Table 7
Studies Examining the Effectiveness of Expressive Writing to Improve Exam Performance
Notes. EW = expressive writing. NW = neutral writing. TA = test anxiety Source Size
(n)
Demographics Method Duration Main Findings Effect
Size (d) Lepore (1997) 74 Undergraduate & graduate students
Phone interviews & Lab visit
High-stakes Exam (MCAT, GRE, LSAT, GMAT, NCLEX)
EW & NW groups
25 min Depression scale: significant group differences, F(1,112) = 5.01, p < .05
Intrusive thoughts scale, they did not find a significant interaction F(1,72) = .01. .52 Frattaroli, Thomas & Lyumbomir sky (2011) 104 Undergraduate students
Phone interviews & Lab visit
High-stakes Exam (GRE-General, MCAT, GRE-Subject, PCAT)
EW & NW groups
30 min Expressive writing group scored significantly higher on the exam (M = 50th
percentile) compared to neutral writing group (M = 41st percentile), p =
.024, r = .25 .52 Ramirez & Beilock (2011) Study 1 20 Undergraduate students Lab visit
Low- and high-pressure scenarios
Pre and post arithmetic test
EW & control groups
10 min Pretest math performance did not differ between groups t(18) = 1.14, p = 0.27
Posttest math performance, EW performed significantly better than the control group t(18) = 5.55, p < .01 2.48 Ramirez & Beilock (2011) Study 2 47 Undergraduate students Lab visit
Low- and high-pressure scenarios
Pre and post arithmetic test
EW, NW & control groups
10 min Pretest math performance did not differ as a function of groups F2,44 = .74, p = .48; however this was not true for the posttest F(2,44) = 5.50, p < .01
Posttest math performance, EW: significantly increased by 4%, t(15) = 2.09, p = .05. NW & control: significant 7% drop in performance
.22 Ramirez & Beilock (2011) Study 3 51 High School students 3 biology classes In-class
Time 1: anxiety measures
Time 2: EW prior to final exam
EW & NW groups
10 min For the NW group, higher anxiety was related to lower test performance, r(26) = -.45, p < .02
For the EW group, higher anxiety was not related to lower test performance, r(25) = -.07, p = .73 .38 Ramirez & Beilock (2011) Study 4 55 High School students 9th grade 3 biology classes In-class
Time 1: anxiety measures
Time 2: EW prior to final exam
EW & NW groups
10 min NW group higher anxiety, lower test performance r(30) = -.48, p < .01
For the EW group, higher anxiety was not related to lower test performance, r(25) = -.19, p = .36 .33 Blank- Spadoni (2013) 158 Dental hygiene students & undergraduate students In class
Time 1: anxiety measures & demographic questionnaire
Time 2: EW prior to 2nd class exam EW & NW groups
10 min No significant interaction between groups on exam performance, F(1,117) = .01, p = .96
No significant differences between pre-and post-state test anxiety across groups t(58) = -.49, p= .96 .09 Park, Ramirez & Beilock (2014)
80 College students Phone & Lab visit
Math task & word task
EW & control groups
7 min Participants in the control group who had high test anxiety committed more errors (M =.21) on high-demand problems than participants with low test anxiety (M =.13), F(1,37)=3.15, p =.08
Participants in the EW group did not differ in errors committed based on level of test anxiety F(1,37) = .97, p > 0.3
.49 The Current Study 110 College students M = 21 years 6 psychology classes In class
Time 1:anxiety measures
Time 2: EW Target exam
EW & NW groups
10 min There was no significant group by exam condition interaction, F(1,104) =0.01, p = .99 differences between groups on exam performance
There was no significant group difference by test anxiety interaction F (1, 102) = .80, p=.37.
70 Appendix A Study Design
Steps:
1. Obtain access to six undergraduate classes
2. Each class will take baseline exam in their respective classrooms
3. Researchers go into each classroom to explain the study and obtain informed consent a) Contingent on consent, students will be administered the TAI
b) Fill out the demographic questionnaire
4. Researchers go into each classroom on the day of the target exam and have students: a) Fill out Self-Report Anxiety Scale (time 1)
b) Respond to a writing prompt (either expressive writing or neutral) c) Fill out Self-Report Anxiety Scale (time 2)
d) Take their classroom exam
71 Appendix B Demographic Questionnaire 1. Age: _____ years 2. Gender: M F 3. Year in school:
❑ 1st Year of College (Freshman) ❑ 2nd Year of College (Sophomore) ❑ 3rd Year of College (Junior) ❑ 4th Year of College (Senior) ❑ 5th Year of College or more 4. Grade Point Average: _______(out of 4.0) 5. Ethnicity: (check all that apply)
❑ African American ❑ Asian ❑ Caucasian ❑ Hispanic ❑ Native American ❑ Other
6. English is my first language: Y N
72
8. Have you been professionally diagnosed with: (check all that apply) ❑ ADHD/ADD
❑ Anxiety ❑ Depression
❑ Learning Disability ❑ Other: _________
73 Appendix C
Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) (Spielberger, Gonzalez, Taylor, Anton, Algaze, Ross & Westbert, 1980)
Test Attitude Inventory
Almost Never
Sometimes Often Almost
Always
1 I feel confident and relaxed when taking tests
1 2 3 4
2 While taking examinations I have an uneasy, upset feeling
1 2 3 4
3 Thinking about my grade in a course interferes with my work on tests
1 2 3 4
4 I freeze up on important examinations 1 2 3 4
5 During exams I find myself thinking about whether I’ll ever get through school
1 2 3 4
6 The harder I work at a test, the more confused I get
74 7 Thoughts of doing poorly interfere with
my concentration on tests
1 2 3 4
8 I feel very jittery when taking an important test
1 2 3 4
9 Even when I’m well prepared for a test, I feel very nervous about it
1 2 3 4
10 I start feeling very uneasy just before getting a test paper back
1 2 3 4
11 During tests I feel very tense 1 2 3 4
12 I wish examinations did not bother me much
1 2 3 4
13 During important tests I am so tense that my stomach gets upset
1 2 3 4
14 I seem to defeat myself while working on important tests
1 2 3 4
15 I feel very panicky when I take an important test
1 2 3 4
16 I worry a great deal before taking an important examination
75 17 During tests I find myself thinking about
the consequences of failing
1 2 3 4
18 I feel my heart beating very fast during important tests
1 2 3 4
19 After an examination is over I try hard to stop worrying about it, but I can’t
1 2 3 4
20 During examinations I get so nervous that I forget facts I really know
76 Appendix D Self-Report Anxiety Scale (SRAS):
“Please circle how you would rate your current level of anxiety regarding this test on a scale from 1-10 (1= not at all and 10= extremely anxious).”
1 (Not at all) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (Extremely)
77 Appendix E
Writing Prompts: (Lepore, 1997; Niles et al., 2013; Ramirez & Beilock, 2011)
Expressive: “I would like you to spend the next ten minutes writing about your feelings
about taking this upcoming test. In your writing, please really explore your feelings and or worries regarding this upcoming test. Remember, all responses are confidential. Please make sure to write for the entire ten minutes.”
Neutral: “I would like you to spend the next ten minutes writing about how you used
your time all day yesterday (i.e., from the time you woke up until you went to bed). In your writing, please be as objective as possible. Remember, all responses are
78 Appendix F
Procedural Script:
Phase 1
State to students:
“Hello, my name is Stephanie Spielberger and I am a graduate student in the School Psychology Program at Syracuse University and I am inviting you to participate in a research study. I am interested in investigating the relationship between writing and test performance. Involvement in the study is completely voluntary, so you may choose to participate or not. I will be handing out a
document outlining the study in more detail. Please, feel free to ask any questions about the study, if you have any.”
“If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in two days of activities that will take place during your regular class time. Today, you will be asked to fill out two short self-report questionnaires. On [Insert Date of target exam:_________], you will be asked to: (1) respond to a multiple choice question, (2) respond to a writing prompt for 10 minutes, and (3) respond to another multiple choice question. Your responses will be kept confidential. This means that your name will not appear anywhere and your specific answers will not be linked to your name in any way. Also, please be aware that your instructor will not see any of your responses to any of the measures. Should you decide not to participate, please contact your professor for other extra credit opportunities that are available to you as an alternative.”
After all informed consent forms have been filled out, collect all forms.
For only those students who have consented to participate in the study, hand out the TAI
Collect all TAI questions and make sure that students have provided an answer for each question
Once all TAI questions have been collected, hand out the demographics questionnaire
Collect all demographic questionnaires and make sure that students fill out each part of the demographic survey
Phase 2
State to students:
“Hello, as most of you already know, I am Stephanie Spielberger. I am a graduate student in the Psychology Department and here to follow-up with the study that many of you started last time I was here in your classroom. For those of you who have decided to participate, you will be receiving a packet. Please do not open it until I tell you to do so.”
79
Hand out Packets
Make sure that students are not turning the page yet
State to students:
“Okay, if everyone can now turn to page one and respond to the first question. Once you are done, please turn the page to the blank page.”
Make sure that everyone has completed the first question and has turned to the blank page.
State to students:
“For the next 10 minutes I would like for you to respond to the prompt on the top of the next page. Please write for the entire time. If you have any questions, please raise your hand and we will come over to answer your question.”
Set up stopwatch
“Okay, please turn the page and begin”
Start stopwatch for 10 minutes
State to students once the 10 minutes are up:
“Okay, time is up, please close your packets and we will come around to collect them. Thank you for your participation.”
Collect all packets
80
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88 Stephanie Spielberger Vita Contact: 14 Netto Lane Plainview, NY 11803 Education:
Syracuse University 2012-current
Department of Psychology, School Psychology Program
SUNY College at Oneonta 2008-2012