1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content
3.1 Permanent Traditional Diplomacy 3.2 Conference Diplomacy
3.3 Parliamentary Conference Diplomacy 3.4 Ad Hoc Conference Diplomacy 3.5 Personal Diplomacy
3.6 Economic Diplomacy 4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Diplomacy is a primary political instrument nation states use in pursuit of national interests in their relations with other nations. In this unit, we will study the various types of diplomacy or combination of diplomacy that a country may use to achieve its goals in the international system. In addition, we will treat the advantages and disadvantages of employing any of the types of diplomacy to nations applying them at a particular point of time.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the different types of diplomacy
• explain the meaning of personal diplomacy
• identify the categories of people who can be accepted by nations for
• personal diplomacy
• evaluate the importance of diplomacy.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Permanent Traditional Diplomacy
Permanent traditional diplomacy is when permanent traditional structures are used in diplomatic discussions. That is, all diplomatic discussions must involve the state’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs through its minister, Ambassadors, Charge de affairs, Protocol, Information Attaches, etc. The head of government would normally allow the Foreign Affairs Minister make all the pronouncements, on behalf of the state whenever the Head of Government wants to make such pronouncements. The Minister or the Legislature must also have an input.
In case of change of government, this structure is not altered, although personnel may change such as the Ministers and Ambassadors sometimes. No matter how radical or revolutionary a regime may be it cannot afford to change the structure all a time.
3.2 Conference Diplomacy
Under conference diplomacy discussions are carried out through various conferences. This is particularly over issues that go beyond the power of individual states. Organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), African Union (AU), United Nations Organization (UNO), Non-allied Movement (NAM), European Union (EU), the Commonwealth of Nations, Arab League, World Trade Organization (WTO) etc hold annual summits and extra-ordinary summits on general or specific issues concerning World Peace and Security. Consequently, before ECOWAS launched the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), it met, discussed and approved military monitoring action on Liberia to curtail conflict and promote harmony in the war torn area.
The AU annual summits normally highlight African problems with possible solutions. With one voice they call on the international community to resolve crisis on economic matters. Within the OAU as AU was then called, there was the Committee on Southern Africa Liberation and Apartheid. There is also a mediation and reconciliation committee within the present AU with peacekeeping missions. One problem with AU however, is the inability of its leaders to put weight behind agreed actions. This was the reason why it failed in its peacekeeping mission in Chad, where Nigeria was abandoned to bear the burden.
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3.3 Parliamentary Conference Diplomacy
Each state constitution recognizes the importance of establishing committees on foreign affairs. It normally debates foreign affairs issues and pass them on to whole house for general debate. As it is normal, parliament must ratify treaties signed by the Head of Government. The inability of Nigeria’s Supreme Military Council to ratify the cessation of the Bakasi Peninsula to Cameroun by Gowon led to the protracted case between the two countries until the ratification of the World Court judgement by the present Senate in July, 2008.
3.4 Ad Hoc Conference Diplomacy
This is a temporary diplomatic format set up by states or organizations for specific purposes, and it terminates after the purpose might have been achieved. For example, the OAU’s Apartheid Committee which Chief Olusegun Obasanjo was one time co-chairman, Eminent Persons Group on South Africa etc. As soon as apartheid was crushed in 1994, the ad hoc committees were disbanded.
3.5 Personal Diplomacy
This is a diplomatic style where the Head of State or the Foreign Affairs Minister side-tracks the permanent traditional structure for personal initiative. This entails diplomatic shuttles and allies, traveling from one country to another for image laundering and other matters. Although journeys are usually in the company of staff of relevant ministries, the promises by the envoy are made out of his volition. General Yakubu Gowon and Chief Olusegun Obasanjo are the best examples in Nigeria.
During one of the diplomatic shuttles Gowon promised to pay the salaries of Grenada civil servants for six months.
The danger in this type of diplomacy is that the environment he visits easily influences a weaker leader. But for strong leaders it is difficult.
This was why the expectations of the Nigerian Government were high that Margaret Thatcher’s visit to Nigeria may influence her thinking over apartheid in South Africa. However, Nigeria miscalculated because Britain believes in following the traditional policy-making process.
3.6 Economic Diplomacy
This is the means by which government influences and controls certain productive arms of government in concert with the private sector interest in the economies of other countries for her domestic benefit, which are economic and political. The concept dates back to 1580 when the policy of technical assistance was in vogue for the objective of promoting
export markets. There is offensive economic diplomacy where a country in pursuit of its international relations, with its buoyant economy is not only ready to change the course of events and situations, but also has the capability to strike first at any instance when its national economic interest is at stake. This may entail the extension or denial of financial benefits, petroleum products, food supplies, the granting or denial or withdrawal of trade concessions, the establishment or disinvestment of foreign investment etc. Nigeria, for example, nationalized British Petroleum (BP) assets in Shell PDC on August 2, 1979 over the issue of Zimbabwe’s independence. The Arab State’s oil embargo of 1973 was to pressurize the Western World. The Monroe Doctrine, Marshal Economic Plan and Brezhnev Doctrine are other examples.
There is also the Defensive Economic Diplomacy, where a country that is exploited and objectified reacts violently at its opponents and tries to force them out rather than succumb to servitude. A country may want to be a master of itself. For example, Japan, China, Cuba, Nicaragua, etc.
put up struggles to sustain their sovereignty. There is also the need to restructure the existing international economic order.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have studied the various types of diplomacy showing their strong and weak points. Thus we can agree that economic type of diplomacy is the most effective type of diplomacy a nation state can use to achieve its economic desire in international relations. However, it is important to note that economic diplomacy is only effective for a nation that is economically buoyant.
5.0 SUMMARY
Types of diplomacy include: permanent traditional diplomacy, personal diplomacy, permanent conference diplomacy, multilateral diplomacy, parliamentary conference diplomacy, ad hoc conference diplomacy, revolutionary diplomacy and economic diplomacy.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What is economic diplomacy?2. Discuss the various types of diplomacy you have studied in this unit.
3. Evaluate the importance of personal diplomacy. What are the advantages?
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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Osita & Ngozi (2005). Diplomacy in Idachaba (ed.) Introduction to International Studies. Lagos: National Open University.