Homer, Odyssey 15.380–453 (8th century BCE)

An exchange between Odysseus in disguise and his swineherd Eumaeus reveals a common perception of the Phoenicians as crafty traders, and also shows the fluidity of society both in terms of origin and social class.⁸ (CSR)

And then wily Odysseus answered him and spoke: “O alas, when you were little, swineherd Eumaeus, you were led far astray from your homeland and your parents. But come, tell me and speak truly, whether someone sacked your well-built city of men, there where your father and lady mother lived, or if ill-intentioned men took you on their ships one day when you were wandering with the sheep or cows and sold you as

a slave to this man’s house, who purchased you for a worthy price.” And then the swineherd, that leader of men, addressed him: [390] “Stranger, since you ask me these things and inquire, listen now in silence and relax; drink wine while you are sitting. These nights are incredibly long.

There is time to sleep and to listen while one enjoys oneself.

Nor is it at all necessary to sleep before it is time; too much sleep is as much trouble as not enough. Whoever of the others may be compelled by his heart or mind, let him go away and go to sleep; and from the beginning of dawn let him eat and then follow our king’s swine. But we two will drink and eat in the tent and enjoy the wretched sorrows of each other [400] as we think of them. For, a man enjoys sorrows too after the fact, whoever has suffered much and wandered much. And I will tell you what you inquire and ask about.

There is a certain island called Syria, if ever you’ve heard of it, north of Ortygia, where the sun turns in the sky, it is not excessively large, but it is good: good pastures, good flocks, abundant in wine, rich in corn. Hunger never comes into the home, nor any other plague that is hateful and harmful to wretched mortals. But when the men grow old in this city, [410] Apollo with his silver arrows comes with his sister Artemis and kills them with gentle arrows as he draws near.

There are two cities there, and everything is divided between them. My father was king of both. His name was Ctesius, the son of Ormenus, a man who was like a god. And Phoenician

men came there, men famous for being swindlers, bringing thousands of delights in their black ship. There used to be a Phoenician woman in my father’s house, beautiful and tall and trained in glorious crafts. And the exceedingly crafty Phoenicians seduced her. [420] First one slept with her while she was down washing clothes by the hollow ships.

Sex deceives the minds of womanly women, even if they are great do-gooders. He asked her who she was and where she came from, and straightaway she pointed out to him my father’s high-roofed house. ‘I claim to be from Sidon rich in bronze. And I am the daughter of Arubas, who is abundantly wealthy. But some Taphian pirates snatched me up while I was coming in from the countryside, and they enslaved me and brought me here to that man’s house, and he paid a worthy price.’ [430] The man then spoke to her again, the one who had slept with her in secret, ‘Would you now return with us to your home again, so that you might see the high-roofed home of your mother and father and see them too, for they are still around and are called rich?’ And the woman addressed him and answered with this speech: ‘This may be so, if you would be willing, sailors, to make an oath to return me unharmed to my home.’ So she spoke, and they all swore as she bid them. But when they had sworn and accomplished the oath, the woman spoke to them again: [440] ‘Now keep silence, and let no one of your companions address me with words, when they meet me unexpectedly on the street, or

perhaps by the fountain, so that someone won’t go to the house and tell the old man, and he would suspect and bind me in troublesome chains, and plan your destruction. But keep this speech in your minds, and hurry the sale of your wares. But when your ship becomes full of goods for trade quickly send a message to me in the house; for I will bring gold, whatever I can find lying around, and I would willingly give another thing for my fare. [450] For I am rearing up the noble child of the master in the palace, such a crafty boy, always running out of doors. I would take him on the ship, and he will earn a huge sum for you, wherever and to whomever you transport him.’”

9. Hesiod, Works and Days 109–181 (7th century BCE). Hesiod tells a number of stories about the decline of man, including the story of the five races of man, four associated with a different metal.⁹ (MLG)

Golden was the very first race of chattering humans. [110]

They were constructed by the immortals who have homes on Olympus. They lived under Cronus who was king at that time. They lived like gods, hearts free from worry, and far removed from wretched toil. No terrible old age existed:

their feet and hands remained the same, and they rejoiced in feasts, removed from every evil. Their death appeared like

falling asleep. All good things were theirs. The fertile land produced fruit on her own and produced it in unstinting abundance. Quietly, just as they pleased, they lived off the many good things from the fields, [120] <rich in flocks, dear to the blessed gods>.

But the earth covered over this race; they are spirits through the plans of great Zeus, good spirits who dwell on earth, guardians of mortal men. <They guard justice and harsh deeds, traveling everywhere on the earth, wrapped in mist.> They confer wealth, possessing this as their king’s prize.

The gods, who have homes on Olympus, made the next race silver, much worse than the previous one, resembling the golden race in neither speech nor mind. [130] Their children were raised by their watchful mothers for one hundred years, playing childish games in the house. But when they finally grew up and reached a measure of maturity, they lived but a short time, experiencing pain from their folly. For they were unable to restrain themselves from reckless violence against each other. They were unwilling to revere the immortals and to sacrifice on the holy altars of the blessed ones, as is just for mortals from custom. This race was removed by Zeus, son of Cronus, who grew angry because they did not honor the blessed gods who possess Olympus. [140] But when even this race was covered over by the earth, mortals called them the blessed ones below the

earth—second in rank, it is true, but honor also follows even them.

Father Zeus made another race, the third, of chattering men, the bronze race, completely different from the silver, born from tree nymphs, terrifyingly powerful, obsessed with the keening deeds of Ares and acts of violence. They did not eat bread at all, but had powerful hearts of adamantine rock, implacable. Great was their force, and from their shoulders grew stout arms and invincible hands. [150] They had bronze weapons, bronze homes, and they constructed with bronze.

Dark iron did not exist. These people were overcome by their own hand and went without any name to the broad house of chilly Hades. Black death seized them, although they were mighty, and they left behind the bright light of the sun.

But when this race was covered over by the earth, Zeus, son of Cronus, made another again, the fourth on wide-nourishing earth, better and more just. A divine race of heroes called [160] demigods, the race before ours on the broad earth. These were destroyed by evil war and terrible battle, some under the seven gates of Thebes, the land of Cadmus, as they fought over the cattle of Oedipus; others were destroyed after traveling in ships across the broad deep of the sea, because of lovely-haired Helen. Some of them were embraced by death, but others were granted customs and a life apart from men by father Zeus, son of Cronus, dwelling at the ends of the earth. [170] These live with

carefree minds in the islands of the blessed beyond the deep-eddying Ocean. They are the blessed heroes, for whom the fertile land willingly bears sweet-smelling fruit three times a year.

I wish I did not live among the fifth people! If only I had already died or was born later. For the race now is iron.

1. Poseidon’s visit to the Ethiopians is also mentioned at Od. 5.282–284, when Poseidon spies Odysseus on the sea leaving Calypso’s island.

2. The Sidonians are also noted for offering hospitality and proper guest-friend gifts to Menelaus at 4.615–619.

3. Egypt is mentioned further in the Odyssey as a place of incredible wealth (4.126–127), where gods dwell (4.351–570), and of consistent hospitality. The river Aegyptus itself (the Nile), is “fallen from Zeus” or “from heaven” (4.477).

Egypt is also portrayed by Odysseus as a place where supplicants are recognized and treated properly (14.272–288).

4. In Homer, the physician who healed the gods. Used more generally in Classical Greek to denote one who frees others from pain.

5. A dark-blue enamel.

6. A perfect land of abundance that required no labor, similar in conception to Eden.

7. A device used for spreading out grain before grinding it that separates the wheat from the chaff.

8. Odysseus first characterizes the Phoenicians at 14.288–291 as greedy, evil-doers who are full of guile. He characterizes himself (the character in disguise) no

better, however. He acts like a pirate when he describes his initial landing at Egypt. They land and, unprovoked, steal women, food, and wealth from the Egyptians.

9. Ovid (1st century CE) also provides a “myth of the ages” (Metamorphoses 1.89–150). His version leaves out the heroic age.

CHAPTER 2