Human-Computer Interaction

Cognitivist theory is very closely linked to the study of HCI. In the words of Hurtienne (2009, p. 13) “The advent of computers influenced cognitive science and cognitive science influenced how computers were built”. HCI can be traced back to the 1960s when the advancement of computing technology resulted in what was termed “the software crisis” (Haigh, 2010). This predicament was caused by the fact that many new software

applications were required for increasingly complex computer architecture. At the time, computers were not provided with a graphical user interface (GUI) (such as Microsoft Windows or Mac OSX) with which the user could interact with the device. However, in 1972 the Xerox Corporation released the Alto system, which used a new approach. This model was the first computer to feature a bit-mapped (pictorial) display, the use of graphical representations of windows to represent folders and was the first computer to use (and lead to the invention of the term) icons (Cruzi, 2003). This concept was quickly adopted by the Apple Computer Corporation (1983) in their first mainstream computer the Lisa and shortly afterwards the Macintosh (1984). Microsoft followed suit in 1985 with Windows.

With the advent of the GUI and the use of input devices such as the computer mouse, the focus of HCI shifted to the design of the interface, with particular reference to usability. The approach taken was very much based on the cognitive sciences that had developed over the 1970s following the cognitivist revolution of the previous decade. One of the key figures in this movement was Christopher Longuet-Higgins, co-founder and director of the Institute of Cognitive and Information Sciences in Sussex, UK. In this role, Longuet-Higgins encouraged a collaboration between various disciplines including computer science, language, neuroscience and experimental psychology leading to the new discipline of Cognitive Science (Nuyts, 1990).

The reason that cognitive theory is relevant in HCI and especially relating to mobile devices and m‑learning is that a smartphone or tablet can be defined as a cognitive artefact – a human-made tool (computer) designed to support mental activity (Terras and Ramsay, 2012). HCI looks at various factors relating to the use of computers such as:

• cognitive work analysis (making socio-technical systems easier to understand) • distributed cognition (developing technology to support human interaction) • gesture interaction (such as the use of touch-screens, styluses and mice)

• information retrieval (browsing/searching and finding data, documents and files) • mental modelling (how the user perceives the structure and function of a device) • _{visual representation (such as symbols and icons)}

These factors highlight the fact that m‑learning sits at the human/computer interface where Longuet-Higgins’ fields of study converge and overlap. These fields traditionally centre around computer science, but from the learning and teaching perspective, the other areas of communication theory, language and cognitive psychology come into play. In addition to software, there are also hardware concerns. Early research in the field often focussed on the instrumentation. Kjeldskov (2003) discovered that 61% of the existing research into mobile HCI looked at engineering or re-engineering components, developing new parts and considering the properties of a product. These elements do not, however, focus on the end-user. Human/computer interfaces must allow for user- interaction where failure to understand the needs and limitations of the user can lead to the failure of an entire system.

All of these HCI factors need to be considered when designing learning materials, and the process is often based on an approach known as instructional design. This theory, also developed by Robert Gagné (Gagné, Briggs and Wagner, 1998), has its roots in the 1940s when Gagné was involved in the design of training materials for soldiers during the second world-war. Instructional design offers a structured approach to the creation of learning materials and is based on Gagné’s cognitive model relating to the mental processing of information. There are some criticisms of Gagné’s original model,

particularly the fact that instruction is passive rather than active, and therefore does not encourage the learner to engage in the cognitive process of making meaning (Merrill, Li and Jones, 1991). Furthermore, the mode of delivery may be inflexible in that the materials are predetermined and fixed and are not self-adapting in reaction to the input from a learner. However, these shortcomings have largely been addressed over the last thirty years on account of the fact that the student is no longer required to be a passive

observer. Digital technology affords the learner the opportunity to interact with learning- materials. Instructional design theory has been expanded (into what is known as second- generation instructional-design) to take into account the increasing use of technology, such as hypermedia and interactive software design in education. Merrill, Li and Jones (1991) recognised the need for this adaptation when technology-based delivery systems (web-based learning) began to emerge. They explain that the second generation of instructional design recognises the fact that the learner can now interact with the

learning activity, and that the software can dynamically customise the content in reaction to the learner’s needs. To achieve this “dialogue” between human and machine, and to ensure that learning is designed to effectively facilitate the formation of schemata, cognitive theory is now firmly embedded into the instructional design of e-learning materials and has developed into the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia (Mayer, 2009; 2012). This topic is covered in the literature review chapter on page 69.