These are experimental aerodynamic facilities that allow testing and research at velocities considerably above those achieved in the wind tunnels discussed in the previous sections of this chapter. The high velocities in these facilities are achieved at the expense of other parameters such as Mach number, pressure, or runtime.
From the discussions on supersonic and hypersonic tunnels, it is obvious that the aerodynamic problems of high-speed flight are not completely an- swered by tests in these facilities, where the tunnel operating temperature is only high enough to avoid liquefaction. Also, we know that if the static
temperatures and pressures in the test-section of a wind tunnel have to be equal to those at some altitude in the atmosphere and at the same time that the velocity in the wind tunnel equals the flight velocity of a vehicle at that altitude, then the total temperatures and pressures in the wind tunnel must be quite high. It is important to keep the static temperature, static pressure, and velocity in the test-section the same as those in the actual flight condition be- cause only then do the temperature and pressure in the vicinity of the model (behind shock waves and in boundary layers) correspond to conditions for the vehicle in flight.
Having the proper temperature and pressure in the vicinity of the model is considered important because at high temperatures the characteristics of air are completely different from those at low temperatures. Experimental facilities that have been developed to simulate realistic flow conditions at high speeds and which are used extensively for highspeed testing are
• Hotshot tunnels • Plasma jets • Shock tubes • Shock tunnels • Light gas guns
Although it is not our aim to discuss these facilities in this book, we briefly look at them to get an idea about the facilities that are expected to dominate experimental study in the high-speed regime in the future.
3.11.1 Hotshot Tunnels
Hotshot tunnels are devices meant for the generation of high-speed flows with
high temperatures and pressures for a short duration. The high temperatures and pressures required at the test-section are obtained by rapidly discharging a large amount of electrical energy into an enclosed small volume of air, which then expands through a nozzle and a test-section. The main parts of a hotshot tunnel are shown schematically inFigure 3.43.
The arc chamber is filled with air at pressures up to 270 MPa. The rest of the circuit is evacuated and kept at low pressures on the order of a few microns. The high- and low-pressure portions are separated by a thin metallic or plastic diaphragm located slightly upstream of the nozzle throat. Electrical energy from a capacitance or inductance energy storage system is discharged into the arc chamber over a time interval of a few milliseconds. The energy added to the air causes an increase in its temperature and pressure, and this ruptures the diaphragm. When the diaphragm ruptures, the air at high temperature and pressure in the arc chamber expands through the nozzle and establishes a high-velocity flow. The high-velocity flow typically lasts for 10 to 100 millisec- ond periods, but varies continuously during the period. The flow variation is due to a decay of pressure and temperature in the arc chamber with time. The high-velocity flow is terminated when the shock that passed through the
Nozzle Window Diaphragm Arc chamber Test-section Vacuum tank FIGURE 3.43
Main parts of hotshot tunnel.
tunnel in starting the flow is reflected from a downstream end of the vacuum tank and arrives back upstream at the model.
Presently the common operating conditions of hotshot tunnels are about 20 MPa, 4000◦C, and 20 Mach and above, although there is much variation between facilities. Data collection in hotshot tunnels is much more difficult than in conventional tunnels because of the short runtimes.
3.11.2 Plasma Arc Tunnels
Plasma arc tunnels are devices capable of generating high-speed flows with
very high temperature. They use a high-current electric arc to heat the test gas. Unlike hotshot tunnels, plasma arc tunnels may be operated for periods of the order of many minutes, using direct or alternating current. Temperatures of the order of 13,000◦C or more can be achieved in the test gas.
A typical plasma arc tunnel consists of an arc chamber, a nozzle usually for a Mach number less than three, an evacuated test-chamber into which the nozzle discharges, and a vacuum system for maintaining the test-chamber at a low pressure, as shown in Figure 3.44.
Gas in Nozzle Low-density test chamber Cooling water + Arc chamber Settling chamber Model − FIGURE 3.44
Schematic of plasma arc tunnel.
In the plasma arc tunnel, a flow of cold test gas is established through the arc chamber and the nozzle. An electric arc is established through the test gas between an insulated electrode in the arc chamber and some surface of the arc chamber. The electric arc raises the temperature of the test gas to an ionization level, rendering the test gas a mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions, and neutral atoms. This mixture is called plasma and it is from this that the plasma arc tunnel gets its name.
Plasma tunnels operate with low stagnation pressures of the order of 700 kPa or less, with gases other than air. The enthalpy level of the test gas, and consequently the temperature and velocity in a given nozzle, are higher for a given power input when the pressure is low. Argon is often used as the test gas because high temperature and a high degree of ionization can be achieved with a given power input, also the electrode will not get oxidized in an argon environment.
Mostly, plasma arc tunnels are used for studying materials for reentry vehicles. Surface material ablation tests, which are not possible in low- temperature tunnels or high-temperature short-duration tunnels, can be done. These tunnels can also be used for “magneto-aerodynamics” and plasma chemistry fields to study the electrical and chemical properties of the highly ionized gas in a flow field around a model.
3.11.3 Shock Tubes
The shock tube is a device to produce high-speed flow with high temperatures, by traversing normal shock waves that are generated by the rupture of a diaphragm which separates a high-pressure gas from a low-pressure gas. The shock tube is a very useful research tool for investigating not only the shock phenomena, but also the behavior of the materials and objects when subjected to very high pressures and temperatures. A shock tube and its flow process are shown schematically inFigure 3.45.
The diaphragm between the high- and low-pressure sections is ruptured and the high-pressure driver gas rushes into the driven section, setting up a shock wave that compresses and heats the driven gas. The pressure variation through the shock tube at the instant of diaphragm rupture and at two short intervals later are shown in Figure 3.45. The wave diagram simply shows the position of the important waves as a function of time.
When the shock wave reaches the end of the driven (low-pressure) tube, all of the driven gas will have been compressed and will have a velocity in the direction of shock wave travel. Upon striking the end the tube, the shock is reflected and starts traveling back upstream. As it passes through the driven gas and brings it to rest, additional compression and heating are accomplished. The heated and compressed gas sample at the end of the shock tube will retain its state except for heat losses until the shock wave reflected from the end of the tube passes through the driver gas-driven gas interface and sends a reflected wave back through the stagnant gas sample, or the rarefaction wave reflected from the end of the driver (high-pressure) section
T ime Shockp ath Driver -driven in terfac e rarefaction fan Edges of Diaphragm Driven gas Driver gas Time = 0
Compressed and heated driven gas Interface between the driver
and driven gas
Time = a Rarefaction fan
Interface between the driver and driven gas
Shock wave Distance Time = b Pr essur e Pr essur e Pr essur e Shock wave Reflecte d rarefac tion Shock tube FIGURE 3.45
Pressure and wave diagram for a shock tube.
reaches the gas sample. The high-temperature gas samples that are generated make the shock tube useful for studies of the chemical physics problems of high-speed flight, such as dissociation and ionization.
3.11.4 Shock Tunnels
Shock tunnels are wind tunnels that operate at Mach numbers of the order 25
or higher for time intervals up to a few milliseconds by using air heated and compressed in a shock tube. A schematic diagram of a shock tunnel, together with a wave diagram, is shown inFigure 3.46.
As shown in the figure, a shock tunnel includes a shock tube, a nozzle attached to the end of the driven section of the shock tube, and a diaphragm between the driven tube and the nozzle. When the shock tube is fired and the generated shock reaches the end of the driven tube, the diaphragm at the nozzle entrance is ruptured. The shock is reflected at the end of the driven tube and the heated and compressed air behind the reflected shock is available for operation of the shock tunnel. As the reflected shock travels back through
T ime Driver -driven interfac e Reflected shockpath Expansion waves Distance Driven section Shockpath Diaphragm 1 Diaphragm 2 Driver section Nozzle FIGURE 3.46
Schematic of shock tunnel and wave diagram.
the driven section, it travels only a relatively short distance before striking the contact surface; it will be reflected back toward the end of the driven section. When the reflected shock reaches the end of the driven section, it will result in a change in pressure and temperature of the gas adjacent to the end of the driven section. If the change in the conditions of the driven gas is significant, the flow in the nozzle will be unsatisfactory and the useful time will be terminated. The stagnation pressure and temperature in shock tunnels are about 200 MPa and 8000 K, respectively, to provide test times of about 6.5 milliseconds.
3.11.5 Gun Tunnels
The gun tunnel is quite similar to the shock tunnel in operation. It has a high- pressure driver section and a low-pressure driven section with a diaphragm separating the two, as shown inFigure 3.47.
A piston is placed in the driven section, adjacent to the diaphragm, so that when the diaphragm ruptures, the piston is propelled through the driven tube, compressing the gas ahead of it. The piston used is so light that it can be accelerated to velocities significantly above the speed of sound in the driven gas. This causes a shock wave to precede the piston through the driven tube and heat the gas. The shock wave will be reflected from the end of the driven tube to the piston, causing further heating of the gas. The piston comes to rest with equal pressure on its two sides, and the heated and compressed driven gas ruptures a diaphragm and flows through the nozzle.
As can be inferred, gun tunnels are limited in the maximum temperature that can be achieved by the piston design. The maximum temperatures nor- mally achieved are about 2000 K. Run times of an order of magnitude higher
T
ime Expansionwave
Shock path
Diaphragm 1 Piston Diaphragm 2
High pr essur e Piston path wave Expansion Distance Driver
section Driven section
Nozzle
FIGURE 3.47
A gun tunnel and its wave diagram.
than the shock tunnels are possible in gun tunnels. In general, the types of tests that can be carried out in gun tunnels are the same as those in the hotshot tunnels and the shock tunnels.