Identities as subject positions in discourses

In social constructionist theory, the notions of personality, and its fixed nature within

psychodynamic understandings, are replaced with the idea of subjectivity, which is generally identified as the processes by which identities are produced (Burr 2015; Wetherell 1998). In a challenge to the fixed ideas of personhood and role proposed by traditional psychology (Gough, McFadden & McDonald 2013; Jensen 2011; Stenner 1993; Tuffin 2005), discursive psychologists further refined Berger’s work by developing the concept of positioning to refer to the process by which people adopt, resist and offer subject positions that are made

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available in discourses. Identity is therefore seen as fluid, multiple and continually in process (Phan & Baurain 2011; Weedon 1996). This approach gives greater emphasis to the use of language and meaning within discursive contexts as the identities are understood to be discursively produced through social communication (Davies & Harré 1990). As Willig (1999, p. 114) writes, ‘individuals are constrained by available discourses because discursive positions pre-exist the individual whose sense of “self” (subjectivity) and range of experience are circumscribed by available discourses.’

Combining elements of poststructuralism and interactionism, social construction theory understands identity as both a product of discourses and as a resource for ‘accomplishing social actions in talk-in-interaction’ (Jorgensen & Phillips 2002, p. 110). Discourses provide a range of available subject positions and identities that define the individual and their ability to act within that context.

As Davies & Harré (1999, p. 35) write:

A subject position incorporates both a conceptual repertoire and a location for persons within the structure of rights and duties for those who use that repertoire. Once having taken up a particular position as one’s own, a person inevitably sees the world from the vantage point of that position and in terms of the particular images, metaphors, storylines and concepts which are made relevant within the particular discursive practice in which they are positioned.

The ‘other’ is identified as a vital part of the positioning process as subject positions are always jointly produced, reproduced and relational in that the adoption of a position always assumes ‘a position for the interlocutor’ (Andreouli 2010, p. 145; Harré & van Langenhove 1998; Harré & Moghaddam 2003). A constructionist understanding of ‘othering’ will be explored in greater depth in Part Three of this thesis and in relation to the identity formation processes adopted by participants.

Positioning is intrinsically linked to discourse theory as discourses provide a range of subject positions that people adopt in social interaction and these positions shape people’s sense of identity and social interaction (Avdi 2011; Parker 1992). As hegemonic discourses exert

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power, they have significant effects on how people experience the world and themselves (Parker 2005). Positioning theory provides a set of conceptual tools in order to study the relationship between subjectivity and discourse, and in doing so explore the interlinking between culture, social processes and the individual (Davies & Harré 1990; Harré & van Langenhove 1991). The key argument is that self-descriptions, although they are

experienced as ‘authentic self-productions’, actually reflect a ‘selection from the panoply of selves already available to be donned’ (Wetherell & Edley 1999, p. 343). This process is not at a conscious level and therefore remains mostly unrecognised. Subject positions are hierarchically organised, with some being dominant and others being marginalised.

Positioning is seen as a ubiquitous process, intrinsically linked to discourse and forms a fundamental part in the social construction of the self. As Avdi (2011, pp. 67–68) writes, ‘as an analytic tool, subject positioning expands the focus from the personal level to interaction and social process’.

Even though identities are understood as being in continual states of change and tension, several authors argue that they have become increasingly fragmented and unstable ‘in late modernity as they are constructed across a number of contradictory and often antagonistic discourses’ (Hall 1996, p. 6; Hall & Gay 1996; Jorgensen & Phillips 2002). Where concepts like nation, class, gender and family had once provided a limited range of central categories to form identities, the late modern period has been characterised by the development of a wide and constantly evolving range of central categories, producing highly fragmented and contradictory identities (Alasuutari 2004; Hall 1992, 1996; Jorgensen & Phillips 2002).

Jorgensen & Phillips (2002) argue that this increase in fragmentation and tension can be better understood ‘as part of “identity politics” where traditional and stable relations based, for example, on class, family or nation have been replaced by new, unstable identifications partly created through consumption.’ Davies & Harré (1990, p. 47; Harré & van Langenhove 1999) propose that the contradictions experienced between subject positions can create a significant opportunity for understanding and are necessary for individuals to exercise agency. Therefore, while identities are understood as being in constant tension, it is the degree to which this has occurred for social workers that is a central focus of this thesis.

The thesis also draws upon in part, and further develops a constructionist understanding of the concept of ‘role-conflict’, where differing ‘expectations result in incompatible role

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pressures’ that can result in ‘conflict for an individual as the pressures and role forces compete and conflict’ (Korabik, Lero & Whitehead 2011, p. 128). Role conflict in this regard is understood as the high levels of tension created between competing and contradictory discursive positioning of the same role, for example, social worker. Role conflict has been associated with high levels of stress and burnout for social workers (Lloyd et al. 2002;

McLean & Andrew 2000; Um & Harrison 1998) and the literature characterises the conflict as being mainly a tension between professional values and organisational demands (Lloyd et al. 2002). The high degree of tension and conflict between subject positions will continue to be explored throughout this thesis in relation to how it was experienced by research

participants and the formation of their social work professional identity.