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FIGURES:
Figure 2.1: (Top) Example of a clay “bulla” (or envelope), impressed with two different cylinder seals. From Hacinebi, southeast Anatolia/upper Mesopotamia. Surface find from operation 6. Late 4th millennium BC (Late Uruk period) c. Susa levels 17b-18 (based on stylistic comparison of the cylinder seal impressions from Susa and on the bulla). Bulla measures 7.8cm diameter. Recovered broken, yet securely contained inside were 12 “tokens” of four different forms: 6 small spheres, 4 large spheres, 1“disc” and 1 “lentoid”. The disc displays a single linear incision across one surface. All “tokens” measured 1.0-2.5 cm. (Pitman 1996: fig 18a p. 231). (Bottom) two opened bullae displaying the spherical (left) and disc-shaped (right) geometric clay objects sealed inside them in situ. Both from the late-4th millennium cal. BC (Late Uruk Period, c. 3’350- 3’100 cal. BC), Choga Mish, Iran. (Adapted from Woods 2010: no.32 & 33 p. 66).
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Figure 2.2: Illustrative examples of the range and shape of small geometric clay objects which appeared at sites across the Near East from the start of the Neolithic period c. 10th millennium cal. BC. All shown here fall into Schmandt-Besserat’s “plain token” category. (a) Cuboid-shaped clay geometric from 8th–7th millennium cal. BC Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia. Clay Object Number 1283. (b) Triangular-shaped clay geometric from 9th-8th millennium cal. BC Boncuklu Höyük, Central Anatolia. Clay Object number 1483. (c) Selection of small clay spheres from Çatalhöyük; Clay Object Numbers 344, 345 & 346. (d) Semi-sphere. Boncuklu Höyük; Clay Object number 1515. (e) Front and reverse of disc shaped geometric from Boncuklu Höyük. Clay Object number 1440. (f) Range of cones from Çatalhöyük. CO#s 1080, 1120 and 1151. (Photographs: author’s own. Drawings: Mesa Schumacher, courtesy of the Çatalhöyük Project).
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Figure 2.3: Example of what Schmandt-Besserat terms “complex tokens”. Late 4th millennium cal. BC (Late Uruk Period, c. 3’350-3’100 cal. BC), Choga Mish, Iran. (Adapted from Woods 2010: no. 23-26 p. 62 and no. 27 p. 63).
Figure 2.4: Comparative examples of “complex [marked or incised] tokens”, and corresponding proto-cuneiform (mid-late 4th millennium BC) symbols. The symbols represent (top to bottom): sheep and goats, wool and silver. (Adapted from Woods 2010: fig. 2.15 p. 48).
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Figure 2.5: (Top) diagram showing the complexity of counting recording systems in early literate Mesopotamia. Many different systems of symbols were in contemporary use, each used to count and record counts of different types of items and commodities in proto-cuneiform (mid to late 4th millennium cal. BC) (Adapted from Woods 2010: fig. 2.9 p. 41). (Bottom) reverse side of an archaic clay tablet from the late 4th millennium (c. 3,100 cal. BC). Records “three small cattle”: represented by the three small circular holes (each representing one unit), and the round symbol with a cross-the sign for “cattle” (unknown province). (Adapted from Woods 2010: no. 55 p. 81).
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Figure 2.6: Illustration of “Miscellaneous Small Finds” of unfired clay from Neolithic Jericho. Item “6” (registration no. 2886, PPNA) is published as a “gaming piece”, whilst numbers “4” (registration no. 2764, PPNA) and “5” (registration no. 2875, PPNA) are not, despite the obvious similarity in form. (Kenyon & Holland 1983: fig. 367-p. 816).
Figure 2.7: Selection of “Miscellaneous Objects” from Pottery Neolithic A Jericho. Items 1 to 5 are published as “gaming pieces” (Kenyon & Holland 1982: fig. 266-p. 557).
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Figure 2.8: Neolithic “gaming boards” of limestone. PPNB Beidha, Jordan. Both from level II. (Simpson 2007: 6).
Figure 2.9: Neolithic limestone game board from PPNC ‘Ain Ghazal, Jordan. From the floor of a disused house, square 4453, South Field excavation area. (Simpson 2007: 7).
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Figure 2.10: Possible gaming board from 7th millennium, Ghwair, located at the meeting point of the Wadi Faynan and Wadi Ghwair in the Southern Levant. (Simmons & Najjar 2006: fig 7 p. 88).
Figure 2.11: Gaming board from Neolithic (6th millennium BC) Chagha Sefid, the only example of gypsum. (Simpson 2007: 7).
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Figure 2.13: Near complete inlaid gaming board and “dice” from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (mid - 3rd millennium BC). Wooden board with shell, ivory, limestone, lapis lazuli and gold inlay. Dice are of shell, lapis lazuli and gold. (Becker 2007: pl. 95).
Figure 2.14: Gaming board and round playing pieces of black shale and shell. From the Royal Cemetery at Ur, mid-3rd millennium BC. (Becker 2007: pl. 95).
Figure 2.15: Gaming board with shell plaques depicting animal scenes. Set in silver with lapis lazuli boarders. From the Royal Cemetery at Ur, number U. 10557. (Becker 2007: pl. 95).
Figure 2.16: Gaming pieces of shale and engraved shell. Complete set found inside gaming board U. 10557 (figure 2.15). (Becker 2007: pl. 95).
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Figure 2.17: “Dice” of shell, lapis lazuli and gold from the grave of Queen Shub-Ad’s. Registration U. 10478. From the Royal Cemetery at Ur. (Becker 2007: pl. 158).
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.18: (Top) Wooden gaming board, identical to the ornate boards at the Royal Cemetery, Ur. This example is the only contemporary, identical gaming board found outside Ur. From Shahr-i-Sokhta, Iran. (Becker 2007: 11). (Bottom) Selection of the 49, small, carved stone objects interpreted as gaming pieces. All were uncovered together in a cluster, from an early 3rd millennium BC burial in the southeast Anatolian site of Başur Höyük. A range of shapes including geometrics (pyramids and lozenges) and animals (such as pigs and dogs) are represented. Different coloured stones were used to create the objects, which were also p ainted in green, red, blue, black and white. (Lorenzi 2013).
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Figure 2.19: Three depictions of “Senet” playing, all from dynastic Egyptian tombs. (Top) From the tomb of Herenkaou, (middle) & (bottom) from the tomb of Mererouka. Note the identical playing pieces depicted in each drawing. (Vandier 1964: 494).
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Figure 2.21: Polished stone artefacts from Neolithic Çayönü. One of 22 near identical objects uncovered, each approximately 7-8 cm in height. No interpretation proposed by the excavators. (Çambel & Braidwood 1979: 149).
Figure 2.22: Example of “Mehen” boards. Both from the 2nd Dynasty tomb of Peribsen at Abydos. (Kendall 2007: figs. 4.4 & 4.5-p. 35).
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Figure 2.23: Small spherical objects described as “marbles” Used for playing “Mehen”. (Kendall 2007: fig. 4.2a-p. 34).
Figure 2.24: Ornately carved ivory lions and lionesses-playing pieces for “Mehen”. From tomb M. VIII at Abu Roash, 1st Dynasty c. 3,000-2,830 BC. Early Dynastic Period. Maximum height: 3. 5 cm, length: 6. 5 cm. (Der Manuelian & Jaquet-Gordon 1987: fig. 12-p. 47).
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Figure 2.25: Range of ivory zoomorphic figurines for “Mehen” playing. Top: lions and bottom: dog. (Kendall 2007: figs. 4.2a, 4.2b & 4.3-p. 34).
Figure 2.26: A humble gaming board made from a clay slab incised with lines. From Middle Kingdom Kahun, a Lower Egyptian workers village. (David 1979: pl. 6-p. 15).
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Figure 2.27: A Near Eastern version of the traditional Ancient Egyptian Hounds and Jackals board game played using pins adorned with carved dogs and jackals. (Hoerth 2007: fig. 7.4, p. 66).
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Figure 2.29: Example of a Mancala (or Mankala) board game and playing pieces (small pebbles kept in a bag). This game dates to the 20th century AD; belonging to the Buganda people of modern Uganda. Wood, length: 101. 60 cm. (Walker 2007: fig. 28.8-p. 254).
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Figure 2.30: Further examples of wooden Mancala (or Mankala) board games. (Top) ornate Mancala board of the Yoruba people-present Nigeria and Republic of Benin. 20th century AD. Length: 63. 5 cm. (Middle) two piece foldable Mancala board from 19th century AD Ethiopia. Length: 60. 4 cm. Accompanied by a cloth bag containing pebbles-gaming pieces. (Bottom) Swahili board, East Africa. Length: 64 cm. (Walker 2007: fig. 28.1-p. 251).
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Figure 2.31: Straw slingshot with spherical clay pellets. From Middle Kingdom Kahun. Egypt (c. 1’900 BC). (David 1979: pl. 4-p. 15).
Figure 2.32: Drawing showing Schmandt-Besserat’s proposed use of clay objects, along with a large solid ovoid or “bulla”; all held together by a piece of string. (Schmandt-Besserat 1996: fig. 11 p. 41).
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Figure 2.33: Drawing illustrating the range of geometric clay objects or “calculi” as they are referred to, from the 5th millennium BC sites of Tell ‘Ubaid and Tell Abada (Jasim & Oates 1986: 356).
Figure 2.34: Range of geometric clay objects (some incised), published as “calculi”. From 5th millennium BC Tell Abada (left) and 4th millennium BC Tell Brak (right). (Jasim & Oates 1986: pl. 1 p. 357).
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Figure 2.35: (Top) hollow, egg-shaped clay envelope (or bulla) from Nuzi (Adapted from Woods 2010: fig. 2.13 p. 46). (Bottom) drawing of a cast of Text 449 and detail of the 8 liens of written text, an administrative cuneiform text from 2nd millennium BC Nuzi, modern Yorghan Tepe. (Leo Oppenheim 1959: fig. 1 & 2 p. 122).
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Figure 2.36: The Blombos Ochre – and incised stone dating to c. 75,000 BC. Recovered from Blombos Cave, southern Cape coast, South Africa. The abstract engravings on the pieces of ochre are often claimed to be the oldest know “artwork”, and are attributed by some as the earliest evidence of recording as they are often interpreted as lunar notations in the form of a tally . (Sy & Tinker 2006: 110).
Figure 2.37: The Ishango Bone recovered from the small fishing village of Ishango on the Zaire- Uganda border. The bone is engraved with markings, now thought to represent a prehistoric tally. The markings are divided into three rows, and like the Blombos Ochre (see above), are claimed to represent an early system of recording of the lunar phase calendar. (Sy & Tinker 2006: 115).
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Figure 2.38: Drawing of the Ishango Bone highlighting the detail of its markings which are separated into three sections. According to Sy and Tinker, the outer two rows each have markings totalling 60 (the row on the left containing sets of notches representing only prime numbers between 10 and 20, while the row on the right has sets of marking based on a numeration system based on 10). The central row appears to illustrate duplication (multiplication by two). (Sy & Tinker 2006: 116).
Figure 2.39: Engraved Palaeolithic eagle bones from Le Placard, near Charente, Western France. The bones have been dated to 13’500 BC, and are thought to be an early notation system charting the lunar cycle (Robinson 2007: 54).
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Figure 2.40: Photograph showing both sides of the Tai Plaque– an engraved rib bone from the Grotte du Tai, southwest France. The bone measures 8. 8cm long and dates to c. 10,000 BC placing it within the Terminal Magdalenian or Early Azilian culture. Marshack suggests the notches recorded non-arithmical observations of the lunar year, and also solstitial observations (Marshack 1991: fig. 1 p. 26).
Figure 2.41: Photograph and detail of design a six-sided calendar stick of ivory. From the Yakut culture, Siberia. Dimensions: 17. 8 x 2.5 cm. The chart illustrates the detail of each side of the stick, with the addition of the calendar months. The stick is thought to record not only the calendar months, but important events within them (Marshack 1991: fig. 6 p. 32).
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Figure 2.42: Chief Tshi-zun-hau-kau of the Winnebago Indians, Wisconsin. Painted in the 1820’s. Tshi-zun-hau-kau holds a calendar stick-documenting the precise observational lunar year. The stick also contains intercalary months to bring it into phase with the solar year. (Marshack 1985: 30).
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Figure 2.43: Image from an AD 15th century cathedral window in Tournai Cathedral, Belgium. The scene shows medieval customs officers collecting wine duties with the aid of wooden stick tallies. The officer on the left holds a pair of tallies along with a notching knife. The colleague to his right holds a purse to collect duties. (Robinson 2007: 54).
CHAPTER 3: THE NEOLITHIC OF THE
NEAR EAST
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