The Illyrian type

The Illyrian type helmet has a rectangular face opening and characteristic crest-track on the crown. The crest-track has parallel ridges running lengthwise over the crown and functions as a support for the attachment of an organic crest¹¹ and for increasing the mechanical stability/strength of the crown (Snodgrass, 1967: 52; Pflug, 1988b). The equally balanced distribution of Illyrian and Geometric helmets in the western Peloponnesus and the striking parallels in shape support the idea that the Illyrian helmet is an independent development deriving from the Kegelhelm (Snodgrass, 1964: 18-20; Pflug, 1988b), although connections to an earlier Cretan open-faced helmet have been made (Kunze, 1958; Hoffmann, 1972).

Evidence as to when the transition from Kegelhelm to Illyrian helmets took place is ambiguous. The leading hypothesis is that it starts at the turn of the 8^th c. BC, with the earliest example being a helmet made in two halves discovered in a grave in Kalavryta approximately dated to the first half of the 7^th c. BC (Snodgrass, 1964: 57; Kunze, 1967). The development of the Illyrian helmet is parallel to the Corinthian type. Three phases are identified based on technological and stylistic changes (Figure 5.3).

Helmets of the Early Phase (Type I), both variants A (in one piece) and B (in two pieces), consist of an evenly hammered thin bronze sheet. The edge around the helmet is strengthened by a bulge and carries a row of rivets, perhaps for the attachment of the now disintegrated helmet lining¹² (Pflug, 1988b). A row of rivets is also found on other contemporary defensive weapons. The distance between the rivet-holes changes systematically through time, a characteristic potentially significant for dating (Jarva, 1995: 65-72). Lack of significant numbers of excavated helmets of the different variations means that helmets of this phase cannot be put in a clear chronological order and a clear transition to the middle phase is not detectable (Pflug, 1988b).

The Middle Phase (Type II) starts with depictions of the Illyrian type on pottery in the last quarter of the 7^th c. BC. It has a curved profile and consists of a thin hammered bronze sheet.

The crest-track on the crown becomes more noticeable due to ridges that are more elevated.

11 Pictorial evidence shows that an organic crest was stretched over the crown and hooked (with metal pins) into holes at the end of the crest track. Material evidence of a crest is not reported in the archaeological literature.

12 Material evidence of organic parts of a helmet, such as the inner padding or lining, organic decoration under the rivet row found at some helmets or the crest track is extremely rare. Pseudomorphic evidence of leather used as lining is reported in a mid-6th c. BC bronze-decorated iron Bandhelm helmet from Sardis (Greenewalt and Heywood, 1992). A fibrous felt-like material is reported on an Illyrian type helmet at Harvard (HUAM 1972.55,

The walls of the crown curve slightly inwards at the sides, making it a stylistically independent element. The wide neckguard curves outwards and is visually distinguished from the cheekpieces; this is enhanced by the deep side cuts near the ear areas, which separate the neckguard from the cheekpieces. The presence of these ‘side cuts’ develops parallel to the Corinthian helmet and predominates since the 7^th c. BC. Engraved decoration is rare. The only decoration on the Illyrian helmets of the Middle Phase consists of a row of wide-headed rivets situated around the edge of the helmet. Material evidence supports the attachment of an organic component (bone or ivory) for decorative purposes (Manti unpublished, Helmet A2002 G194, Pella). It is suggested that more elaborated examples would have silver rivet heads similar to Corinthian examples (Pflug, 1988b). The distribution of Type II reflects the expanding trade of Greek cities in the Adriatic Sea (Illyria and SW Balkans), resulting in the development of new variants, which may indicate the development of new workshops or better trade networks (ibid.).

Most excavated Illyrian type helmets date to the Late Phase. They are characterised by a solid, thick metal sheet and a less curvy form with an almost horizontal neckguard. The cheekpieces are visually separated from the neckguard by either deep side cuts (Type III A) or rounded ear openings (Type III B) (Pflug, 1988b). The former is influenced by the contemporary Corinthian types and the latter, which is relatively rare, by the Chalkidian types. This influence becomes stronger in the 5^th c. BC (Figure 5.4) (Kunze, 1967). The general uniformity in shape during this phase (especially Type III A.2) is seen as evidence of an organised production geared towards making large numbers of helmets (ibid.).

The late phase Illyrian Type III A has three main variants: (1) with rivet row around the edge;

(2) with punched decoration around the edge imitating rivets; and (3) with no edge decoration (Moustaka, 2000). According to Pflug, the transition from variant 1 to 2 may be connected to requirements for faster production and to the increased thickness of the metal sheet used, which would make the drilling of rivet-holes more time consuming (Pflug, 1988b). Variant 3 is seen as an independent group with its own line of development because of its main distribution around Thessaloniki (e.g. Sindos, Mikro Karabournaki) and Trebenista (second half of 6^th c. BC) (ibid.). Examples of decoration include engraving and the use of silver foil (Type III A.1), such as on the helmet in the British Museum (Hockey et al., 1992) and on display in Olympia. Macedonian coins depict 5^th c. kings wearing Illyrian type III A.2 helmets (Snodgrass, 1967: 116; Pflug, 1988c; Moustaka, 2000). This, and the distribution of this type support a local production in Illyria itself or the broader Macedonian region in northern

Type I Variant A

Helmet in two parts riveted together perpendicularly

The horizontal edge of the forehead runs parallel to the neckguard. Oval or stretched profile. The crown is semicircular in profile and continues without interruption into pointed cheekpieces of varied shapes. Drilled holes may be present at the edge of the cheekpieces although this is more common in later types. Often the main ridge of the crest-track is flanked by two smaller ones. There is a strengthening bulge at the rim and a row of rivets at the rim border.

Variant B Helmet in one part

Type II Variant A

With bulge at the rim

The walls curve slightly inwards at the sides of the crown, making the crown a more independent element. A wide neckguard curves outwards and is separated from the cheekpieces by deep cuts near the ear. There is a more distinguishable crest-track with elevated ridges and a row of rivets around the rim.

Variant B A less curvy form with clear stylistic separation of the

cheekpieces from the neckguard and an almost horizontal As Type IIIA, but with ear openings. Influenced by the Chalkidian

type.

With punched edge decoration

Phase II - Middle Form Last quarter of the 7th – mid 6th c. BC c. 625-550 BC

Phase III - Late Form Mid 6th – 4th c. BC c. 550 BC onwards End of 8th – 3rd quarter of the 7th c. BC c. 735-625 BC

Phase I - Early form

Figure 5.3: Illyrian type helmets: summary of typological and chronological development. Based on information in Pflug 1988e, Snodgrass 1967, Kunze 1967, Moustaka 2000, figures from Moustaka, 2000.

Figure 5.4: Chalkidian type helmet variants. This type starts appearing in the mid 6^th c. BC. Although Kunze (Kunze, 1994) places its origins at Chalkis, Euboia (and named it accordingly), its distribution focuses on Magna Grecia, hence arguing for a southern Italian origin. Figure from (Pflug, 1988d).