Intellig en ce a n d a p titu d e te sts m e a su re sa m p le s o f behavior, a c q u ire d u n d e r specific c o n d itio n s in a relatively sh o rt p e rio d o f tim e , th a t m ay be used to m a k e p re d ic tio n s a b o u t b e h a v io r in a larg er c o n te x t. T est scores tell us how in d iv id u a ls diifer fro m o n e a n o th e r in th e d o m a in o f in te lle c tu a l fu n c tio n in g . T h ey are o ften used as to o ls to aid d ec isio n m a k in g in su ch are as as c u rric u lu m p la c e m e n t, d ia g n o sis fo r special e d u c a tio n , e d u c a tio n a l a n d ca reer co u n selin g , college a d m issio n s, a n d th e h irin g a n d p ro m o ti o n o f e m p lo y e e s . In a s o c ie ty w h e re th e r e is c o m p e t i t i o n fo r e d u c a tio n a l a n d o c c u p a tio n a l reso u rces, th e h o p e has been th a t te sts can aid in th e efficient d is trib u tio n o f th ese reso u rce s ac c o rd in g to in te lle ctu al m e rit, ra th e r th a n w ealth o r ancestry.
C o n c e rn s a b o u t w h at te sts are m e a su rin g , a b o u t racial a n d class d if feren ces in test scores, a n d a b o u t how th ese scores are b ein g used have led m a n y to q u e s tio n th e u sefu ln ess o f in tellig en ce tests as gatekeepers. T h e im p a c t o f tests o n th e e d u c a tio n a n d o c c u p a tio n s o f A m e ric a n s has c o m e u n d e r in c re asin g atta c k . M a rtin H o lm e n a n d R ic h a rd D o c te r id en tify w h at th e y call th e “ c e n tra l c ritic is m ” o f testing:
At the heart of criticisms about tests and testing programs is one fact that is likely to help perpetuate at least some of the criticism: tests are often used as tools for the allocation of limited resources or opportunities. Put another way, educational and psychological tests are frequently designed to measure differences am ong individuals so that one person recieves a reward or priv ilege which another person is then denied.1
F o r m a n y critics o f te stin g , a n d o th e r firm believers in a lib e ral d e m o c ra tic state, p olicies w h ich allo c a te m a n y o f so c iety ’s m o st p re c io u s re sources, a t least in p a rt, ac c o rd in g to o n e ’s an sw e rs on a b r ie f m u ltip le - ch o ice exam are very d istu rb in g . T h is is p a rtic u la rly tru e w h en these te sts are seen as c u ltu ra lly biased a n d o f lim ite d ap p lic a b ility to re a l-w o rld
behavior. Tests o n ly m a tte r to th e e x te n t th a t th e y are used. T h u s, p e rh a p s th e m o st im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n we can ask a b o u t in te llig en c e te sts is “ W h a t g o o d are th e y ?” W h a t effect d o th e se te sts have on th o se w ho are c o m p e tin g for lim ite d resources, a n d o n th e rest o f us w ho m u st live in th e so ciety th u s c re ate d ? T h is c h a p te r will discuss, in th e c o n te x t o f e x p e rt o p in io n , so m e o f th e uses a n d ab u ses o f in te llig en c e a n d a p titu d e tests, as well as th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r these te sts offer a n y ad v a n ta g e over o th e r g a tek e ep in g m e th o d s. We will be c o n c e rn e d w ith th e th re e p r im a ry uses for in te llig en c e a n d a p titu d e testing: th e in d iv id u a liz a tio n o f e d u c a tio n in e le m e n ta ry a n d se c o n d a ry schools, a d m issio n to schools o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , a n d e m p lo y m e n t testing. Tests have p ro v en useful in each o f these co n tex ts, b u t th e p o te n tia l for ab u se is also g reat, as te sts are used a n d in te rp re te d in a p p ro p ria te ly by th o se w ith o u t an a d e q u a te u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e ir fu n c tio n s a n d lim ita tio n s. T h e tra d e o ff betw een efficiency a n d th e p o te n tia l fo r ab u se has b ee n a c e n tra l c o n c e rn in litig atio n , leg islatio n , a n d ex e cu tiv e policy c o n c e rn in g in te llig en c e a n d a p titu d e tests.
In a d d itio n to th e se issues, th e last se ctio n o f th e c h a p te r w ill discu ss d a ta o n th e d e m o g ra p h ic a n d b a c k g ro u n d c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e survey re s p o n d e n ts as th e y rela te to su b sta n tiv e q u e s tio n resp o n d in g .
Intelligence and A ptitude Testing in Elem entary and Secondary S ch ools
T h e p ast te n years have seen several a tte m p ts o m e a su re th e n a tu re a n d e x te n t o f in te llig en c e a n d a p titu d e te st use in U .S . sc h o o ls.2 T h e resu lts o f th e se surveys are n o t alw ays c o n siste n t, as th e re are sig n ific an t d ifferences in survey sa m p le s a n d th e p h ra sin g o f q u e stio n s. N o n eth e le ss, it a p p e a rs th a t betw een o n e - h a lf a n d tw o - th ir d s o f all p u b lic school d istric ts a d m in ister g ro u p in tellig en ce o r a p titu d e te sts to all stu d e n ts a t least o n ce d u rin g th e p erio d b etw een k in d e rg a rte n a n d tw elfth grade. Two facts seem clear a b o u t th ese d a ta . F irst, th e y re p re se n t a d e c lin e in te st use o v er th e p re v io u s te n o r tw en ty years. In C h a p te r 1 we m e n tio n e d th e resu lts o f tw o n a tio n w ide surveys, c o n d u c te d by th e A k ro n P u b lic S chools, o f la rg e -c ity a n d - c o u n ty te st d irec to rs. T h e A k ro n surveys fo u n d th a t in c e rta in grad e levels, th e use o f g ro u p tests h ad d e c lin e d fro m 100 p e rc e n t in th e 1964 survey to less th a n 40 p e rc e n t in 1978.3 (T h e p e rc en ta g es fo r 1978 te st use in th is survey re p re se n t te st use d u rin g o n ly th re e school years; o th e r su r veys th a t in c lu d e all e le m e n ta ry a n d se c o n d a ry grades g en e rally in d ic a te usage in excess o f fifty p e rc e n t.) S im ilarly, in a stratified ra n d o m su rv ey o f o ver 5,000 A m e ric a n p u b lic high school stu d e n ts c o n d u c te d in 1963 a n d 1964, O rv ille B rim a n d his asso ciates fo u n d th a t 78 p e rc e n t o f stu d e n ts w ere co n fid e n t th e y h a d ta k e n a t least o n e in te llig en c e te st d u rin g th e ir life tim e .4 N o n e o f th e re c e n t surveys o f te st use in d ic a te p e rc en ta g es th is
The Impact of Intelligence Testing 141
high. T h e d ecrease in te st use ste m s fro m a d ec lin e in tra c k in g (ab ility g ro u p in g ) in e le m e n ta ry a n d se c o n d a ry sch o o ls c o u p le d w ith an in c re asin g p e rc e p tio n th a t w ith o u t a specific a p p lic a tio n like tra c k in g in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e general level o f in tellig en ce o r a p titu d e o f m o st s tu d e n ts is a relatively useless su p p le m e n t to school grades a n d a c h ie v e m e n t te st scores.
T h e seco n d im p o r ta n t fact a b o u t th e use o f g ro u p in te llig en c e a n d a p titu d e te sts to be g lean ed fro m th ese surveys is th a t th e level o f ac tu a l test
u sa g e is far below th e fre q u en c y o f te st a d m in is tra tio n . Beverly A n d erso n ,
in a survey o f te st use in fo u rte e n w estern sta te s p u b lish e d in 1982, e sti m a te s th a t a b o u t tw o - th ird s o f th e school d istric ts in th e se sta te s a d m in ister g ro u p a p titu d e tests, b u t th a t a b o u t h a lf o f th ese d o so as a re su lt o f p u b lic p ressu re o r sch o o l b o a rd policy, a n d se ld o m o r n ev e r use th e re su lts.5 A 1979 N a tio n w id e T ea ch e r O p in io n Poll c o n d u c te d by th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A sso ciatio n (N E A ) fo u n d th a t 64 p e rc e n t o f te a c h e rs h a d u sed g ro u p in te llig en c e te st score, a n d 59 p e rc e n t h a d used g ro u p a p titu d e test scores, d u rin g th e p re v io u s th re e years, b u t o n ly 39 p e rc e n t o f each g ro u p h a d fo u n d th ese scores in an y way h elp fu l.6 In th e ab sen c e o f specific a p p lic a tio n s , te ac h ers a n d g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo rs find a p titu d e a n d in te llig en c e te st scores o f lim ite d usefulness.
O n e a p p lic a tio n w here in te llig en c e te sts c o n tin u e to b e useful is in d ia g n o sis a n d sp e c ia l-e d u c a tio n p la n n in g . T h is w as, o f co u rse, th e fu n c tio n o f th e o rig in a l B in e t-S im o n scale. In cases w here a s tu d e n t is hav in g e x tre m e difficulty in th e classro o m , it is c o m m o n p ra c tic e to use in d iv id u a lly a d m in iste re d in te llig en c e tests, in c o n ju n c tio n w ith a h o st o f o th e r te sts a n d assessm en t devices, to d ia g n o se th e stu d e n t's p a rtic u la r p ro b le m s a n d to