Impacts result from the interaction of host and guests

The impacts described in this section are the effects upon the host residents resulting from the cross-cultural contact of host and guest. According to Brislin and Cushner (1996) there is an increase in intercultural and intracultural interactions throughout the world, which has an influence on behaviours, thought patterns, socioeconomic status, culture and religion etc. Ap (1990); Allen et al. (1993); Sharpley (1994); Mathieson and Wall (2006) believe that the key to the socio-cultural impacts of tourism is the interaction between hosts and guests. A number of scholars have examined hosts and guests contacts and its impacts. Table 2.1 below summarises studies on tourist-host encounters and its impacts.

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Table 2.1 Literature on interaction between hosts and guests

Author/ year Research focus

Doxey (1975); De Kadt (1979) Pearce (1982); Pearce and Bochner (1982); Pearce (1984) Reisinger and Turner (2003)

The effects of intercultural tourist-host contact on host attitudes, behaviour and values toward tourists.

Pearce (1982) The effects of social contact between tourists and hosts and the way in which tourists and hosts view one another.

Mittelberg (1988); Sharpley (1994)

Uriely and Reichel (2000) Mathieson and Wall (2006)

The effect of tourist-host contact in terms of the social and cultural impacts of tourism development.

Pizam (1982) The tourist-host contact as a potential source of crime.

Krippendorf (1987) The tourist-host contact in terms of understanding and communication.

Ryan (1991) The disappearance of the local language and dialect as an outcome of tourist-host contact.

Srisang (1991) The unequal nature of tourist and host relations by discussing its most extreme form of child prostitution.

McKercher (1993); Boniface (1999)

The tourist and host contact as a potential source of conflict because of the differences in tourist and host demands.

Sharpley (1994) The host adoption of foreign languages

Burns and Holden (1995) The host coping behaviour and efforts to avoid contact.

McIntosh et al. (1995) The host resentment towards tourists as an outcome of the economic gap between tourists and hosts.

Black et al. (1996) The communicative messages behind the tourist-host encounter and examined whether host perceptions of their guests and of themselves change overtime.

The interaction between people of different cultural backgrounds may result in positive as well as negative outcomes (Williams 1947; Rose 1948; Saenger 1953; Allpoty 1954; Cook 1962;

Brewer and Miller 1996; Berry 2005; Brunt 2010). The following tables present common negative and positive outcomes for the host residents from the cross-cultural interaction between hosts and guests.

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Table 2.2 Negative outcomes of the local from the cross-cultural interaction between host and outsiders

Author/ year Outcomes

Downs and Stea (1977);

Andronicou (1979); Hofstede (2001); Reisinger (2009)

 Becoming confused about their identity, which can weaken their value of beliefs

 Losing their culture due to the forces of shared culture Keen (2002)  Facing cultural conflict and culture shock

Poostchi (1986);

 The host culture being restructured, for example, the agriculture which was the basis of traditional life is replaced by, and becomes secondary to tourism

Cohen (2006); HADF (2007)  Facing a conflict from income contribution among the local residents themselves which often weakens the community McMillan and Chavis (1986)  A problem of fractionalisation in society which divides

people into groups. As a result, it can create boundaries between residents in a community

Doxey (1975); Hofstede (1980);

Bochner (1982);

Huang and Stewart (1996)

 Increased the negative feelings resulting from the frequent interaction between people of different cultural

 Clash of values, conflicts and disharmonies in the host community the most superficial form of cultural encounter and are less likely to be positive

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Table 2.2 indicates that local people may be suffered from having cross-cultural contacts with outsiders. According to Liu et al. (2007) tourism development in developing countries or less developed destinations is usually dominated by the outsiders who hold different values which disrupts host culture. Host communities often are the weaker party in interactions with their guests and service providers (UNEP 2002; Shaw and Williams 2004). Therefore, if one culture from a stronger party interacts with a weaker one, the local community often loses its own culture. However, it is also widely recognised that the host residents may also benefits from the cross-cultural contacts, especially through the form of tourism which has been accepted by many rural areas in spite of its negative effects (Poostchi 1986; Rattanasuwongchai 1998;

Rajani 2002; Buadang 2004; Karabati et al. 2009). Table 2.3 below presents positive outcomes from cross-cultural contacts between hosts and outsiders.

Table 2.3 Positive outcomes from the cross-cultural interaction between host and outsiders

Author/ year Outcomes

Cook (1962); Buck (1978);

Bochner (1982); Pizam (1982);

Uriely and Reichel (2000);

Thyne et al. (2006)

 Gaining knowledge of each other and their culture

 Foster social interaction and improve and preserve local‟s traditional values

 Enhancement of positive attitudes towards each other in terms of mutual appreciation, understanding, respect, tolerance and liking

(Davidson 1989).  Being inspired by successful careers, resulting in gaining determination

 Developing greater ambitions for themselves

 Becoming more independent thinking as outsiders Dee (1998); Hogh (1998);

Warren (1998).

 Learning and adopting change to create and sustain social value

Myers (1962); Kakabadse et al.

(2004)

 By working together in the shared event can help bring people closer to one another because their involvement helps create bond between community members

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To be noted, some literature (e.g., Ap 1992; Ap and Crompton 1993; Aref and Gill 2009) suggest that their judgment of positive or negative outcome depends on whether or not the benefits host residents gain can outweigh the negative outcomes. While others (e.g., Pearce 1989; Nyaupane et al. 2008) believe otherwise by suggesting that the interaction between outsiders and host residents only confirms previous attitudes toward each other, regardless of whether these attitudes are positive or negative. Therefore, there is no confirmation on whether an outcome of the interaction between host residents and ETAs can be more positive or more negative, as it depends on value and judgment of individual.

However, Keen (2000) suggests that, the abilities of non resident business owners with the involvement of local people have a significant impact on the community. Despite a large number of studies (e.g., Fox 1977; Pizam 1978; Cohen 1984; Hall 1992; Ross 1992; Ap and Crompton 1993; Wall and Mathieson 2006) which have emphasised the impacts resulting from the interaction of local communities and its tourists, there is however, a limited information about the interaction between ETAs and local tribal residents. Therefore, the interaction between ETAs and community members creates interrelationship which may potentially play an important role in shaping the community.

Having reviewed literature related to residents‟ perceptions and socio-cultural impacts, however, the interaction between people of different cultures in the workplace is another focus of the research. Therefore, the following section begins with a review of literature relating to cross-cultural work groups, leading to cause of cross-cultural diversities in the workplace and its outcomes.