Implementation of the EPWS Program

The buyers of the water services generated through the EPWS program were the Dar es Salaam Water and Sewage Company (DAWASCO) and Coca Cola Kwanza Ltd while the service providers were the upstream farmers of the Kibungo Juu ward villages namely Lukenge, Kibungo, Lanzi, Dimilo and Nyingwa

(Table 3.6) (CARE and WWF, 2007b; Lopa et al., 2012). In these villages, 1,215 households were expected to participate in the program and change their agricultural practices to implement SLM practices on over 2,240 ha of farmland (Branca et al., 2011).

Table 3.6. Demography of the Villages Implementing EPWS in Kibungo Juu Ward, Morogoro Rural District

Village name Male Female Total

number of individuals Number of households 1.Dimilo 428 481 909 227 2.Lanzi 512 589 1101 275 3.Nyingwa 781 953 1734 434 4.Kibungo 515 601 1116 279 Total 2236 2624 4860 1215

Source: (CARE and WWF, 2007b)

These villages cover an area of 35,804 ha of which nearly half falls within the land used by the villages and the rest in reserved forest land under village governance (CARE and WWF, 2007b; CARE/WWF, 2007). Land tenure system is dual, which includes village government and the customary land user rights

(CARE and WWF, 2007b; CARE/WWF, 2007; Lopa et al., 2012). The dominant system is the village government land user right (CARE and WWF, 2007b). Land under customary user rights is accessed by clan members through inheritance and by non-clan members through renting or sale. Access to land by women is through their husbands (CARE and WWF, 2007b). However, in case a husband is deceased, women with no children tend to go back to their parents, while those with children continue to use a deceased husband’s land to take care of their children (CARE and WWF, 2007b). On average, households in Kibungo ward have 2.2 plots of land (St. Dev. 0.8) which averages 2.9 acres (St. Dev. 1.6) (Table 3.7). Most of the land is used as cropland with only few forest lands (Table

3.7). The majority of these are mixed croplands (Table 3.7). It has also been reported that when first acquired, 11% of the plots in the ward were forestland, 76% were inherited and 15% were purchased. However, these numbers differ from village to village. For example, the share of forest converted land in Nyingwa is quite larger (21%) than other villages (CARE and WWF, 2007b). Of those who inherited the land, 39% held a customary right on the land and 53% have no title (Table 3.3) (CARE and WWF, 2007b). Table 3.7 indicates the land tenure system, ownership and access in the study area.

Table 3.7. Land tenure system, ownership and access for the study villages

Nyingwa Lanzi Dimilo Kibungo

Average land holding

(acres) 2.8 3.1 2.8 -

Kind of Land (%)

Crop land 97.3 97.02 98 97.96

Forest 2.7 2.08 2 2.04

Legal Title Ownership (%) Sales 2.7 14.5 20 144.29 Customary rights 45.95 66.67 42 26.53 Village ownership 2.7 10.42 4 0 None 48.65 8.33 38 59.18

Source: CARE and WWF (2007b)

CARE international and WWF Tanzania implemented the EPWS program as program intermediaries between service providers (the farmers in the villages of Lukenge, Kibungo, Lanzi, Dimilo and Nyingwa) and service buyers (DAWASCO and Coca Cola Kwanza Ltd) (Lopa and Mwanyoka, 2010; Lopa and Jindal, 2011). As intermediaries, these organisations facilitated the establishment of a business case approach for the program to assist negotiations between service providers and buyers (WWF, 2006). In establishing a business case, several studies were conducted between 2005 and 2007. These included (1) legal and policy

assessment for PES in Tanzania (CARE and WWF, 2007a), (2) social and livelihoods assessment of villages surrounding the Uluguru mountains (CARE and WWF, 2008) and (3) hydrologic and land use/cover change analysis for the Ruvu river (Uluguru) watersheds (Yanda and Munishi, 2007). Also, during this phase, the intermediaries facilitated several educational programs for farmers in the Kibungo Juu ward on the concept of PES and its benefits to the environment and their livelihoods, through village meetings and workshops.

After establishment of the business case, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the service providers and service buyers was signed in 2008. The MoU stipulated roles and obligations of all parties. The service providers were to ensure the implementation of SLM practices and, in return, the service users were to provide payments to the service providers for the implementation of the service producing SLM practices. Service buyers, DAWASCO and Coca Cola Kwanza Ltd committed to pay US$ 100,000 and US$ 200,000 respectively to the service providers over four years. The implementation of EPWS started in 2008 with internal and external training including local workshops, study tours, extension services and provision of farm materials, manure and seeds (Lopa and Mwanyoka, 2010).

The sustainable land management practices implemented under the EPWS program included agro-forestry, reforestation, bench terraces, grass strips, fanya

juu, and riparian restoration. The selection of conservation practices was based

on the nature of the areas’ terrain (slope gradient) determined in percentages. The landscape terrain was categorized into three slope gradient classes, namely

low risk slope gradient (0-15%), medium risk slope gradient (from 15-35 %) and high risk slope gradient (above 35%). Bench terraces and fanya juu and fanya

chini terraces were constructed on 35 % and above steep slopes (TerrAfrica,

2007). Bench terraces were developed on steep slopes after the construction of cross-slope barriers whereby erosion (water and tillage) progressively caused beds to level (Figure 3.5). A bench terrace is defined by a flat or slightly backward or forward-sloping bed. The design of the benches is usually calculated by a formula that relates their size and spacing to the slope.

Figure 3.5. The construction of bench terraces in progress as found in Kibungo village. The left plate shows farmers taking measurements and the right plate shows the constructed bench terraces.

Fanya juu (‘do upwards’ in Kiswahili) terraces were made by digging ditches and

trenches along the contour and throwing the soil uphill to form an embankment (Figure 3.6). A small ledge or ‘beam’ is left between the ditch and the bund to prevent soil from sliding back. They are constructed to harvest and conserve rainfall and sometimes are laterally graded to safely discharge excess runoff. The embankments (risers) are stabilised with fodder grasses. After some time, Fanya

Figure 3.6. Fanya juu terraces in Lanzi

Fanya chini terraces (‘do downwards’ in English) are constructed by piling soil or

throwing excavated soil below a contour trench to conserve soil and divert water (Figure 3.7). Fanya chini involves less labour than Fanya juu, but do not lead to the formation of a bench terrace as quickly as fanya juu does. In both fanya juu and fanya chini, grass bands or strips are applied on the slope gradients. Fanya

chini terraces are implemented on fields with slopes of between 15-35%, which

are mostly used for settlement accompanied by home gardens and paddy fields. Grass bands are used with fodder grasses such as Miscanthus sinensis (elephant grasses), tripsacum andersonii (Guatemala) and pennisetum

purpureum (napier grass), which provide pasture for goats kept by farmers.

Vertiver grasses are used for thatch roofing and handcrafts. In areas where grass strips are used, different grass species are planted in strips along the contour lines. The strips are spaced at suitable intervals to decrease surface runoff velocity and to retain eroded sediments. Grass strips are established on gentle slopes of less than 15%. Besides reducing soil erosion, grass strips provide

fodder for livestock and improve fertility when appropriate grass species are planted.

Figure 3.7. fanya chini terrace in Kibungo village

Tree nurseries were established to supply trees for agro-forestry and afforestation projects in the study villages (Figure 3.8). Agro-forestry is implemented in areas with slopes ranging from 0% to 15% where perennial trees are deliberately integrated with landholders’ home gardens where the majority of farmer’s plant different annual and perennials crops such as spice trees (cinnamon), banana and bread fruit trees. Trees provide timber, fuel wood, fruits and some trees can provide fodder for livestock and improve soil fertility. Together with grasses in rows, trees planted in macro contour-lines help to reduce the speed of surface runoff and retain sediments carried by surface runoff. Afforestation is implemented on lands with slopes above 35% considered not suitable for cultivation or grazing purposes. When growing crops, farmers are encouraged to use cover crops and mulching to improve soil moisture and productivity. In addition, the program emphasises the management of riparian

zones by planting trees to reduce surface run-off and soil erosion. These measures are believed to contribute to the conservation of watershed services and to support improvements of livelihoods for the stewards in terms of increasing farm yields to ensure food security and increased cash incomes. Figure 3.8 shows a tree nursery in Kibungo Village

Figure 3.8. A tree nursery in Kibungo Village