4.0
Results
A total of 400 respondents were interviewed. The socio-demographic characteristics of are shown in table 1
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Variable Frequency Percent
Age (year)
15 –19 28 7.0
20 – 29 113 28.3
30 – 39 110 27.5
40 – 49 68 17.0
50 – 59 47 11.8
≥ 60 34 8.5
Total 400 100
Mean age 36.7 ± 13.7
Sex
Male 191 47.7
Female 209 52.3
Total 400 100
Marital status
Single 112 28.0
Married 253 63.3
Separated/Divorced 19 4.7
Widowed 16 4.0
Total 400 100
Marriage type
Monogamy 220 87.0
Polygamy 33 13.0
Total 253 100
Ethnicity
Igbo 60 15.0
Yoruba 277 69.3
Others 63 15.7
Total 400 100
Religion
Christianity 226 56.5
Islam 174 43.5
Total 400 100
The mean age of the respondents was 36.7 ± 13.7 years and age range was 15 – 80 years.
About one-third (34.0%) of them were between 25 and 34 years, while 20.8% were between 35 and 44 years. More than half (52.3%) were females. Over two-third (63.3%), were married, while 28.0% were single. The majority (87.0%) of those that were married were in monogamous marriages. Yoruba constituted the majority (69.3%). Most (56.5%) of the respondents were Christians, while the remaining were Muslims.
Table 2: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents
Variable Frequency Percent
Education
No formal 55 13.7
Primary 69 17.3
Secondary 208 52.0
Tertiary 63 17.0
Total 400 100
Occupation
Professional 4 1.0
Intermediate 27 6.7
Non-manual skilled 31 7.8
Manual skilled 102 25.5
Partly skilled 96 24.0
Unskilled 97 24.3
Student/Housewife 43 10.7
Total 400 100
Present employment status
Presently employed 343 85.8
Not presently employed 57 14.2
Total 400
Type of employment n =343
Public 21 6.1
Private – self 214 62.4
Private – non-self 108 31.5
Average monthly income (₦) n =343
<10,000 78 22.7
10,000 – 20,000 125 36.4
21,000 – 50,000 99 28.9
51,000 – 100,000 37 10.8
101,000 – 150,000 4 1.2
Mean average monthly income 25,863.90 ± 24,890.27
A little above half of the respondents (52.0%) had secondary education, while 17.0% had tertiary education. Most of them were manual skilled workers (25.5%). The majority (85.8%) were employed. A large proportion (62.4%) of the respondents that were employed was self employed.
Table 3: Distribution of respondents by family size and income
Variable Frequency (n = 400) Percent
Family size
1 – 5 303 75.8
6 – 10 88 22.0
11 – 20 9 2.2
Mean family size 4.7 ± 2.6 Average monthly income
of family (₦)
<10,000 21 5.2
10,000 – 20,000 78 19.5
21,000 – 50,000 118 29.5
51,000 – 100,000 87 21.8
101,000 – 150,000 26 6.5
150,001 – 300,000 10 2.5
Don’t know 60 15.0
Mean monthly family income 52,390.88 ± 45,511.34 Average monthly family
expenditure on food (₦)
<10,000 73 18.3
10,000 – 20,000 213 53.3
21,000 – 50,000 74 18.5
51,000 – 100,000 9 2.2
Don’t know 31 7.7
Mean monthly expenditure on food 18,571.82 ± 14,621.34
The family size ranged from 1 to 20 with a mean of 4.7 and standard deviation of 2.6.
The majority (75.8%) of the families have at most 5 people. The mean average income of family was ₦52,390.88 ± 45,511.34. The mean average family expenditure on feeding was ₦18,571.82±14,621.34. The mean average family expenditure on feeding per person was ₦7,340.90 ± 4,431.01.
Table 4: Distribution of respondents by their lifestyles
Life styles Frequency Percent
Cigarette smoking
Never smoked 369 92.3
Currently smoking 20 5.0
Ex-smoker 11 2.7
Total 400 100
Alcohol intake
Never took alcohol 341 85.3
Currently drinking 44 11.0
Ex-drinker 15 3.7
Total 400 100
Exercise
Exercise 135 33.7
Do not exercise 265 66.3
Total 400 100
The majority (92.3%) of the respondents never smoked cigarette, 20 (5.0%) were current smokers while 11 (2.7%) were ex-smokers. About two-third (64.1%) never took alcohol, 15 (3.7%) had stopped taking it, while 44 (11.0%) were still drinking. Only one-third (33.7%) reported that they do exercise
Table 4A: Duration of smoking and the average number of sticks smoked per day
Variable n = 31
Current smoker Ex-smoker Total
Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Duration of smoking (year)
< 1 14 (70.0) 5 (45.5) 19 (61.2)
1 – 3 6 (30.0) - 6 (19.4)
No response - 6 (54.5) 6 (19.4)
Mean duration 0.8 ± 0.7 0.4 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.5
Average number of sticks per day
1 – 2 3 (15.0) 2 (18.2) 5 (16.1)
3 – 5 11 (55.0) 2 (18.2) 13 (41.9)
>5 6 (30.0) - 6 (19.4)
No response - 7 (63.6) 7 (22.6)
Mean number of sticks 5.2 ± 4.0 2.8 ± 2.1 4.0 ± 3.1
The mean duration of smoking was 0.8 year for currently smokers and 0.4 years for ex-smokers. The mean number of sticks smoked per day was 5.2 ± 4.0 for current smokers and 2.8 ± 2.1 for ex-smokers.
Table 4B: Duration of alcohol intake and the average number of bottles per day
Variable n= 59
Current drinker Ex-drinker Total
Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Duration of alcohol intake (year)
< 1 9 (20.4) 10 (66.7) 19 (32.2)
1 – 2 15 (34.1) - 15 (25.4)
3 – 5 16 (36.4) - 16 (27.1)
>5 4 (9.1) - 4 (6.8)
Could not remember - 5 (33.3) 5 (8.5)
Mean duration of alcohol intake 2.8 ± 1.9 0.3 ± 0.2 1.6 ± 1.1 Average number of bottles per day
1 – 2 26 (59.1) 5 (33.3) 31 (52.5)
3 – 6 18 (40.9) 4 (26.7) 22 (37.3)
Could not remember - 6 (40.0) 6 (10.2)
Mean number of bottles 2.6 ± 1.5 2.7 ± 1.7 2.7 ± 1.6
The mean duration of alcohol intake was 2.8 years for currently drinkers and 0.3 year for ex-drinkers. The mean number of bottles taken per day was 2.6 for current drinkers and 2.7 for ex-smokers.
Table 4C: Type of exercise reported by respondents
Type of exercise Frequency(n = 135) Percent
Dancing 22 16.3
Basketball 7 5.2
Cycling 4 3.0
Jogging 31 23.0
Soccer 23 17.0
Swimming 1 0.7
Tennis 8 5.9
Volleyball 6 4.4
Brisk walking 54 40.0
Climbing stairs 54 40.0
Multiple responses given
Among the 135 respondents that exercise, 54 (40.0), 54 (40.0%), 31 (23.0%), 23 (17.0%) and 22 (16.3%) reported brisk walking, climbing stairs, jogging, soccer and dancing respectively. Only few of them take part in tennis (5.9%) and volley ball (4.4%), while very few take part in swimming (0.7%)
Table 4D: Profile of the exercise reported by respondents
Variable Frequency (n = 135) Percent
How often respondents exercise
Everyday 68 50.4
Alternate days 31 23.0
Twice per week 9 6.7
Once per week 23 17.0
Every two weeks 1 0.7
Once per month 3 2.2
Last time respondents exercised (week)
<1 129 95.6
≥1 6 4.4
Duration of last exercise (hour)
<0.5 56 41.5
0.5 – 1 36 26.7
1 – 2 40 29.6
>2 3 2.2
Sixty eight (50.4%) reported participating in the stated exercises every day, while 31 (23.0%) alternate days and 23 (17.0%) once per week. The majority (95.6%) stated that their last exercise was 1 to 6 days ago. Two-fifth (41.5%) of the last exercise lasted for less than 30 minutes.
Table 5: Distribution of respondents by chronic medical conditions
Variable Frequency Percent
Presence of chronic medical condition
Yes 51 12.7
No 349 87.3
Total 400 100
Type of chronic medical condition (n = 51)
Hypertension 28 54.9
Heart disease 2 3.9
Diabetes 9 17.6
Asthma 8 15.7
Tuberculosis 1 2.0
Kidney disease 1 2.0
Peptic ulcer disease 10 19.6
Epilepsy 1 2.0
Multiple responses given
Fifty one (12.7%) of the respondents had one or more chronic medical conditions.
Hypertension, peptic ulcer disease, diabetes and asthma constituted 28 (54.9%), 10 (19.6%), 9 (17.6%) and 8 (15.7%) of the chronic medical conditions respectively.
Table 5A: Distribution of respondents by the medication they are taking
Variable Frequency Percent
Medication
On medication 49 12.2
Not on medication 351 87.8
Total 400 100
Type of drug (n = 49)
Antihypertensive 26 53.1
Antituberculous 1 2.0
Antidiabetic 9 18.4
Antiasthmatic 9 18.4
Antipeptic 8 16.3
Multiple responses given
Forty nine (12.2%) of the respondents were on medication. Antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antiasthmatic and antipeptic drugs constituted 26 (53.1%), 9 (18.4%), 9 (18.4) and 8 (16.3%) of the medications respectively.
Table 6: Distribution of respondents by blood pressure measurements Blood pressure (mmHg) Frequency (n = 400) Percent Systolic
< 120 206 51.5
120 – 139 157 39.3
≥ 140 37 9.2
Mean systolic blood pressure 115.8 ± 16.6 Diastolic
< 80 168 42.0
80 – 89 138 34.5
≥ 90 94 23.5
Mean diastolic blood pressure 77.5 ± 13.1 Raised blood pressure
Known hypertensive 28 7.0
Raise systolic 37 9.2
Raise diastolic 94 23.5
Raise systolic and/or/diastolic 97 24.3
Raised blood pressure (known hypertensive and/or systolic and/or diastolic)
101 25.2
The mean systolic blood pressure was 115.8 ± 16.6 with 37 (9.2%) of the respondents having value ≥140 mmHg. About half (51.5%) had systolic blood pressure < 120 mmHg.
The mean diastolic blood pressure was 77.5 ± 13.1 with 94 (23.5%) having value ≥90 mmHg. About two-fifth (42.0%) had diastolic blood pressure <80 mmHg. Twenty eight (7.0%) were known hypertensive, while 37 (9.2%) and 94 (23.5%) had raised systolic and diastolic pressure at measurement respectively. Ninety four (24.3%) had raised systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure at measurement. One hundred and one (25.2%) were known hypertensive and/or had raised systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure at measurement.
Table 7: Distribution of respondents by 48 hours dietary recall
Class of food eaten n= 400
Mainly carbohydrate
Mainly protein
Mainly vitamins
Mixed Nothing A day before Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Breakfast 195 (48.8) 10 (2.5) 10 (2.5) 133 (33.2) 52 (13.0)
Lunch 180 (45.0) 12 (3.0) 3 (0.7) 95 (23.8) 110 (27.5)
Dinner 245 (61.3) 9 (2.2) 19 (4.7) 105 (26.3) 22 (5.5)
Eating between meals 3 (0.7) 2 (0.5) 21 (5.3) 6 (1.5) 368 (92.0) Two days before
Breakfast 207 (51.8) 9 (2.2) 19 (4.7) 101 (25.3) 64 (16.0)
Lunch 201 (50.3) 12 (3.0) 3 (0.7) 89 (22.2) 95 (23.8)
Dinner 241 (60.3) 13 (3.2) 17 (4.2) 92 (23.0) 37 (9.3)
Eating between meals 1 (0.2) 2 (0.5) 15 (3.8) 2 (0.5) 380 (95.0)
Forty eight hours dietary recall shows that close to half of the respondents ate mainly carbohydrate food as breakfast (48.8% and 51.8%) and lunch (45.0% and 50.3%) during the immediate past 24 hours and the 25 to 48 hours respectively.
Table 8: Distribution of respondents by family history of obesity
Variable Frequency Percent
Family history of obesity
Present 54 13.5
Absent 346 86.5
Total 400 100
The obese relative (n = 54)
Brother /Sister 17 31.4
Father/Mother 30 55.5
Grandmother 3 5.6
Child 3 5.6
Aunt 1 1.9
Total 54 100
Only 54 (13.5%) had family history of obesity. In 30 (55.5%) of those with family history of obesity, it was either the father or the mother that was obese, in 17 (31.5%), it was either the brother or the sister.
Table 9: Distance of work place from home and means of transportation
Variable Frequency (n = 400) Percent
Distance of work place from home (km)
<0.5 82 20.5
0.5 – 2 117 29.3
2 – 5 109 27.2
>5 92 23.0
Mean distance 3.3 ± 3.2
Means of transportation to work
Trekking 145 36.3
Motorcycle 47 11.7
Commercial bus 153 38.3
Company bus/car 4 1.0
Private car 51 12.7
One hundred and seventeen (29.3%) of the respondents leave between 0.5 and 2 km to the place of work, while 109 (27.2%) leave between 2 and 5 km to the workplace. One-fifth (20.5%) live within half a kilometre to place of work. Close to two-One-fifth (38.3%) take commercial bus to work, while over one-third (36.3%) trek to work. Only 51 (12.7%) take private car, while 47 (11.7%) and 4 (1.0%) take motorcycle and company bus/car to work respectively.
Table 10: Prevalence of obesity
Variable Frequency Percent
Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
Underweight 20 5.0
Normal 202 50.5
Overweight 121 30.3
Obesity 57 14.2
Total 400 100
Mean 25.4 ± 5.3
Waist circumferenceMale (cm) (n = 191)
≤ 102 177 92.7
>102 14 7.3
Mean 82.7 ± 13.2
Waist circumferenceFemale (cm) (n = 209)
≤ 88 146 69.9
>88 63 30.1
Mean 85.5 ± 15.9
Waist-hip-ratioMale (n = 191)
≤ 1 189 99.0
>1 2 1.0
Mean 0.89 ± 0.10
Waist-to-hip ratioFemale (n = 209)
≤ 0.8 41 19.6
>0.8 168 80.4
Mean 0.86 ± 0.08
Key: Underweight<18.5 kgm-2, Normal BMI=18.5 – 25.0 kgm-2, overweight=25.1 – 30.0 kgm-2, Overweight>30.0 kgm-2,
The mean BMI was 25.4 ± 5.3 kgm-2. About half (50.5%) had normal BMI (18.5 – 25.0 kgm-2), while 20 (5.0) were underweight (BMI < 18.5 kgm-2) The prevalence of overweight and obesity were 30.3% and 14.2% respectively. The mean waist circumference among males was 82.7 ± 13.2 cm with 14 (7.3%) having value ≥102cm, the mean among the females was 85.5 ± 15.9 cm with 63 (30.1%) having value ≥88cm.
The mean waist-hip-ratio among males was 0.89 ± 0.1 with 2 (1.0%) of them having value ≥1, the mean among the females was 0.86 ± 0.08 with 168 (having value ≥0.8.
Table 11: Quality of Life and Visual Analogue Scores
Quality of life dimension Mean Frequency (%) n = 400
Good Fair Poor
Overall quality of life 3.8 ± 0.7 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) Satisfaction with health 3.9 ± 0.7 57 (14.2) 276 (69.0) 67 (16.8) Domain (%)
Physical domain 72.7 ± 13.0 64 (16.0) 286 (71.5) 50 (12.5) Psychological domain 71.9 ± 13.0 57 (14.2) 273 (68.3) 70 (17.5) Social Relationships domain 65.9 ± 18.6 30 (7.5) 315 (78.8) 55 (13.7) Environmental domain 60.4 ± 16.1 45 (11.2) 276 (69.0) 79 (19.8) Global domain 67.7 ± 12.4 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) Visual Analogue 74.2 ± 14.0 85 (21.2) 219 (54.8) 96 (24.0)
The overall quality of life was fair in the majority (69.3%) of the respondents, with 32 (8.0%) and 91 (22.7%) having good and poor values respectively. Also, satisfaction with health was fair among the majority (69.0%), with 57 (14.2%) and 67 (16.8%) having good and poor values respectively. The mean overall quality of life was 3.8 ± 0.7, while the mean satisfaction health was 3.9 ± 0.7 The mean quality of life score was 72.7 ± 13.0, 71.9 ± 13.0, 65.9 ± 18.6, 60.4 ± 16.1, 67.7 ± 12.4 and 74.2 ± 14.0 for physical, psychological, social relationships, environment, global domain and visual analogue score respectively. The majority had fair quality of life in all the domains (ranging from 68.3% in psychological domain to 78.8% in social relationships domain). The proportion with good quality of life was highest in physical domain (16.0%) followed by psychological domain (14.2%), while the proportion with poor quality of life was highest in environment domain (19.8%) followed by psychological domain (17.5%).
Table 12: Simple linear regressions of global domain score on other variables
Variable a B r r2 (%) SE F-test p
Age 79.04 -0.31 -0.35 12 0.04 52.13 0.00
Family size 74.60 -1.46 -0.30 9 0.23 39.94 0.00
Personal monthly income 64.38 0.00 0.28 8 0.00 31.31 0.00 Family monthly income 64.56 0.00 0.28 8 0.00 28.26 0.00 Household expenditure on food 66.02 0.00 0.14 2 0.00 6.69 0.01
BMI 72.43 -0.19 -0.10 1 0.12 2.53 0.11
Waist circumference 81.07 -0.16 -0.20 4 0.04 14.59 0.00
Waist-to-hip ratio 70.28 -2.94 0.00 0 6.92 0.18 0.67
Systolic blood pressure 91.32 -0.20 -0.27 7 0.36 32.06 0.00 Diastolic blood pressure 84.73 -0.22 -0.22 5 0.05 22.36 0.00
Key: a = constant (value of the dependent variable when the independent variable is zero), b = regression coefficient, r = correlation coefficient, r2 = coefficient of determination, SE = Standard error
There were weak negative correlations between global domain of health related quality of life and age (r = -0.35), family size (r = -0.30), BMI (r = -0.10), waist circumference (r = -0.20), systolic blood pressure (r = -0.27) and diastolic blood pressure (r = -0.22). There
were weak positive correlations between global domain of health related quality of life and personal monthly income (r = 0.28), family monthly income (r= 0.28) and household monthly expenditure of feeding (r = 0.14).
Table 13: Factors associated with obesity
Variable Body Mass Index in kg/m2 (%) X2 df p
Underweight Normal Overweight Obese Total Age (year)
15 –19 6 (21.4) 19 (67.9) 3 (10.7) 0 (0) 28 101.70 15 <0.01
20 – 29 11 (9.7) 80 (70.8) 19 (16.8) (2.7) 113
30 – 39 2 (1.8) 50 (45.5) 44 (40.0) 14 (12.7) 110
40 – 49 0 (0) 21 (30.9) 32 (47.1) 15 (22.1) 68
50 – 59 0 (0) 20 (42.6) 14 (29.8) 13 (27.7) 47
≥ 60 1 (2.9) 12 (5.3) 9 (26.5) 12 (35.3) 34
Total 20 (5.0) 202 (50.5) 121 (30.3) 57 (14.3) 400 Sex
Male 9 (4.7) 103 (53.9) 68 (5.6) 11 (5.8) 191 22.87 3 <0.01 Female 11 (5.3) 99 (47.4) 53 (25.4) 46 (22.0) 209
Total 20 (5.0) 202 (50.5) 121 (30.3) 57 (14.3) 400 Family history
of obesity
Present 2 (3.7) 30 (55.6) 13 (24.1) 9 (16.7) 54 1.57 3 0.67 0.68٭
Absent 18 (5.2) 172 (49.7) 108 (31.2) 48 (13.9) 346 Total 20 (5.0) 202 (50.5) 121 (30.3) 57 (14.3) 400 Alcohol intake
Yes 0 (0) 30 (50.8) 23 (39.0) 6 (10.2) 59 6.02 3 0.11
0.10*
No 20 (5.9) 172 (50.4) 98 (28.7) 51 (15.0) 341
Total 20 (5.0) 202 (50.5) 121 (30.3) 57 (14.3) 400 Exercise
Yes 8 (5.9) 74 (54.8) 33 (24.4) 20 (14.8) 135 3.42 3 0.33
No 12 (4.5) 128 (48.3) 88 (33.2) 37 (14.0) 265
Total 20 (5.0) 202 (50.5) 121 (30.3) 57 (14.3) 400
*Fisher exact p
There were statistically significant associations between BMI and age (P<0.01) and sex (p<0.01). The likelihood of being obese increased from zero 1n age group 15-19 years to 35.3% among those that were 60 years and above. Females were more likely to be
were no statistically significant associations between BMI and family history of obesity (p = 0.68), alcohol intake (p = 0.10) or exercise (p = 0.33).
Table 14: Associations between anthropometrics and systolic blood pressure
Anthropometrics Systolic blood pressure in mmHg (%) X2 df p
< 120 120 – 139 ≥ 140 Total Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
Underweight 18 (90.0) 2 (10.0) 0 (0) 20 91.49 6 0.00
Normal 135 (66.8) 60 (29.7) 7 (3.5) 202
Overweight 42 (34.7) 67 (55.4) 12 (9.9) 121
Obesity 11 (19.3) 28 (49.1) 18 (31.6) 57
Total 206 (51.8) 157 (39.3) 37 (9.8) 400 Waist circumferenceM (cm)
≤ 102 82 (46.3) 81 (45.8) 14 (7.9) 177 1.90 2 0.39
0.29٭
>102 4 (28.6) 8 (57.1) 2 (14.3) 14
Total 86 (45.0) 89 (46.6) 16 (8.4) 191
Waist circumferenceF (cm)
≤ 88 104 (71.2) 37 (25.3) 5 (3.4) 146 44.95 2 0.00
>88 16 (25.4) 31 (49.2) 16 (25.4) 63
Total 120 (57.4) 68 (32.5) 2 (10.0) 209
Waist-to-hip ratioM
≤ 1 86 (45.5) 87(46.0) 16 (8.5) 189 2.32 2 0.32
0.52٭
>1 0 (0) 2 (100) 0 (0) 2
Total 86 (45.0) 89 (46.6) 16 (8.4) 191
Waist-to-hip ratioF
≤ 0.8 27 (65.9) 11 (26.8) 3 (7.3) 41 1.52 2 0.47
0.57٭
>0.8 93 (55.4) 57 (33.9) 18 (10.7) 168
Total 120 (57.4) 68 (32.5) 21 (10.0) 209
Key: Number of males = 191, Number of females = 209
٭Fisher exact p
There was a statistically significant association between BMI and systolic blood pressure (p = 0.00). The proportion of respondents with systolic blood pressure ≥140mmHg increased from 0% among those with BMI <18.5kgm-2 to 31.6% among those with BMI
>30.0kgm-2.
There was also a statistically significant association between waist circumference in females and systolic blood pressure (p = 0.00). The greater proportion (25.4%) of female
respondents with waist circumference >88cm had systolic blood pressure ≥140mmHg compared with those waist circumference ≤88cm (3.4%).
Table 15: Associations between anthropometrics and diastolic blood pressure
Anthropometrics Diastolic blood pressure in mmHg (%) X2 df p
< 80 80 – 89 ≥ 90 Total Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
Underweight 18 (90.0) 2 (10.0) - 20 90.22 6 0.00
Normal 113 (55.9) 68 (33.7) 21 (10.4) 202
Overweight 31 (25.6) 44 (36.4) 46 (38.0) 121
Obesity 6 (10.5) 24 (42.1) 27 (47.4) 57
Total 168 (42.0) 138 (34.5) 94 (23.5) 400 Waist circumferenceM (cm)
≤ 102 61 (34.5) 74 (41.8) 42 (23.7) 177 1.32 2 0.52
0.53٭
>102 5 (35.7) 4 (28.6) 5 (35.7) 14
Total 66 (34.6) 78 (40.8) 47 (24.6) 191
Waist circumferenceF (cm)
≤ 88 89 (60.9) 41 (28.1) 16 (11.0) 146 43.36 2 0.00
0.00٭
>88 13 (20.6) 19 (30.2) 31 (49.2) 63
Total 102 (48.8) 60 (28.7) 47 (22.5) 209 Waist-to-hip ratioM
≤ 1 65 (34.4) 77 (40.7) 47 (24.9) 189 0.68 2 0.71
1.00٭
>1 1 (50.0) 1 (50.0) - 2
Total 66 (34.6) 78 (40.8) 47 (24.6) 191
Waist-to-hip ratioF
≤ 0.8 23 (56.1) 12 (29.3) 6 (14.6) 41 1.96 2 0.38
0.38٭
>0.8 79 (47.0) 48 (28.6) 41 (24.4) 168
Total 102 (48.8) 60 (28.7) 47 (22.5) 209
Key: Number of males = 191, Number of females = 209
*Fisher exact p
There was a statistically significant association between BMI and diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.00). The proportion of respondents with systolic blood pressure ≥90mmHg increased from 0% among those with BMI <18.5kgm-2 to 47.4% among those with BMI
>30.0kgm-2.
There was also a statistically significant association between waist circumference in females and systolic blood pressure (p = 0.00). The greater proportion (49.2%) of female
respondents with waist circumference >88cm had systolic blood pressure ≥90mmHg compared with those that had waist circumference ≤88cm (11.0%).
Table 16: Associations between socio-demographic variables and overall QOL
There was a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and age (p = 0.003) The proportion of respondents with good quality of life Socio-demographic
variable
Overall quality of life (%) X2 df p-value
Good Fair Poor Total
Age (year)
15 – 19 2 (7.1) 25 (89.3) 1 (3.6) 28 26.24 10 0.003
20 – 29 12 (10.6) 80 (70.8) 21 (18.6) 113 30 – 39 7 (6.4) 80 (72.7) 23 (20.9) 110 40 – 49 7 (10.3) 47 (69.1) 14 (20.6) 68 50 – 59 3 (6.4) 29 (61.7) 15 (31.9) 47
≥ 60 1 (2.9) 16 (47.1) 17 (50.0) 34
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Sex
Male 12 (6.3) 131 (68.6) 48 (25.1) 191 2.28 2 0.32
Female 20 (9.6) 146 (69.8) 43 (20.6) 209 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Marital status
Single 9 (8.0) 85 (75.9) 18 (16.1) 112 12.14 8 0.15
Married 19 (7.5) 172 (68.0) 62 (24.5) 253 Separated/Divorced 2 (10.5) 12 (63.2) 5 (26.3) 19 Widowed 2 (12.5) 8 (50.0) 6 (37.5) 16 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Marriage type
Monogamy 17 (7.7) 159 (72.3) 44 (20.0) 220 18.64 2 0.0001 Polygamy 2 (6.1) 13 (39.4) 18 (54.5) 33
Total 19 (7.5) 172 (68.0) 62 (24.5) 253 Family size
1 – 2 23 (7.6) 220 (72.6) 60 (19.8) 303 8.83 4 0.07
3 – 5 9 (10.2) 52 (59.1) 27 (30.7) 88
>5 - 5 (55.6) 4 (44.4) 9
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Ethnicity
Igbo 10 (16.7) 45 (75.0) 5 (8.3) 60 13.79 4 0.01
Yoruba 19 (6.9) 189 (68.2) 69 (24.9) 277
Others 3 (4.7) 43 (68.3) 17 (27.0) 63
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400
was lowest (2.9%) among those that were 60 years and above. The proportion with poor quality of life was also highest (50.0%) among them.
There was also a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and type of marriage (p = 0.0001). A higher proportion of respondents in polygamous marriage (54.5%) had poor quality of life compared with 20.0% among those in monogamous marriage. Also, higher proportion of those in monogamous marriage (7.7%) had good quality of life compare with 6.1% among those in polygamous marriage.
There was also a statistically significant association between the overall quality of life of respondents and their ethnic group (p = 0.01). A lower percentage (8.3%) of Igbos had poor quality of life compared with 24.9% and 27.0% among the Yorubas and others combined respectively. In another way round, a greater percentage (16.7%) of Igbos had good quality of life compared with 6.9% and 4.7% among the Yorubas and others combined respectively.
Table 17: Associations between socio-economic variables and overall QOL
Socio-economic variable Overall quality of life (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Education
No formal 1 (1.8) 33 (60.0) 21 (38.2) 55 20.82 6 0.002
Primary 2 (2.9) 46 (66.7) 21 (30.4) 69
Secondary 19 (9.1) 152 (73.1) 37 (17.8) 208
Tertiary 10 (14.7) 46 (67.6) 12 (17.6) 68
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Occupation
Intermediate 6 (22.2) 19 (70.4) 2 (7.4) 27 26.54 12 0.01 Non-manual skilled 4 (12.9) 21 (67.7) 6 (19.4) 31
Partly skilled 8 (8.3) 74 (77.1) 14 (14.6) 96
Unskilled 5 (5.2) 61 (62.9) 31 (31.9) 97
Student/Housewife 4 (9.3) 32 (74.4) 7 (16.3) 43 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Employment status
Employed 27 (7.9) 238(69.4) 78(22.7) 343 0.06 2 0.97
Not employed 5 (8.8) 39 (68.4) 13 (22.8) 57 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Type of employment
Public 3 (14.3) 16 (76.2) 2 (9.5) 21 4.68 4 0.32
Private – self 15(7.0) 144 (67.3) 55 (25.7) 214 Private – non-self 9 (8.3) 78 (72.2) 21 (19.5) 108 Total 27 (7.9) 238 (69.4) 78 (22.7) 343 Personal monthly income
<10,000 3 (3.9) 49 (62.8) 26 (33.3) 78 15.61 6 0.02
10,000 – 20,000 8 (6.4) 90 (72.0) 27 (21.6) 125 20,001 – 50,000 9 (9.1) 68 (68.7) 22 (22.2) 99
>50,000 7 (17.1) 31 (75.6) 3 (7.3) 41
Total 27 (7.9) 238 (69.4) 78 (22.7) 343 Family monthly income (₦)
< 10,000 1 (4.7) 14 (66.7) 6 (28.6) 21
10,000 – 20,000 1 (1.3) 54 (69.2) 23 (29.5) 78 20.48 8 0.01 20,000 – 50,000 10 (8.5) 82 (69.5) 26 (22.0) 118
50,001 – 100,000 8 (9.2) 61 (70.1) 18 (20.7) 87
> 100,000 8 (22.2) 26 (72.2) 2 (5.6) 36 Total 28 (8.2) 237 (69.7) 75 (22.1) 340 Expenditure on food (₦)
<10,000 7 (9.6) 51 (69.9) 15 (20.5) 73 4.38 6 0.63
10,000 – 20,000 15 (7.1) 143 (67.1) 55 (25.8) 213 20,001 – 30,000 2 (5.4) 28 (75.7) 7 (18.9) 37
>30,000 6 (13.0) 32 (69.6) 8 (17.4) 46
Total 30 (8.1) 254 (68.8) 85 (23.1) 369
Note: 340 knew family monthly income, 369 knew family expenditure on food
There was a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and their level of education (p = 0.002). A higher proportion (14.7%) of respondents with tertiary education had good quality of life compared with 1.8%, 2.9%
and 9.1% among those with no formal education, primary and secondary education respectively. The proportion of those with poor quality of life decreased from 38.2%
among those with no formal education to 17.6% among those with tertiary education.
Occupation was significantly associated with quality of life (p = 0.01). The professionals had the highest proportions of those the good quality of life (22.2%), while the manual skilled and unskilled workers the lowest (4.9% and 5.2% respectively).
Quality of life also significantly increased with personal income (p =0.02) and family income (p = 0.01).
Table 18: Associations between life styles and overall QOL
Life style Overall quality of life (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Smoking
Ever smoked 1 (3.2) 22 (71.0) 8 (25.8) 31 1.11 2 0.57 Never smoked 31 (8.4) 255 (69.1) 83 (22.5) 369
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Alcohol intake
Ever drunk 4 (6.8) 40 (67.8) 15 (25.4) 59 0.37 2 0.83 Never drunk 28 (8.2) 237 (69.5) 76 (22.3) 341
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Exercising
Do exercise 16
(11.8)
93 (68.9) 26 (19.3) 135 4.88 2 0.09 Do not exercise 16 (6.1) 184 (69.4) 65 (24.5) 265
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Means of transport
to work
n = 357
Trekking 5 (4.9) 60 (58.8) 37 (36.3) 102 23.94 8 0.002 Motorcycle 4 (8.5) 30 (63.8) 13 (27.7) 47
Commercial bus 10 (6.5) 117 (76.5) 26 (17.0) 153 Private/Company car 8 (14.5) 41 (74.6) 6 (10.9) 55 Total 27 (7.6) 248 (69.5) 82 (23.0) 357
There was a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and their means of transport to workplace (p = 0.002). A higher proportion (14.5%) of respondents that use private/company car had good quality of life compared with 4.9%, 8.5% and 6.5% among those that trek, use motorcycle, and commercial
respectively. The proportion of those with poor quality of life decreased from 36.3%
among those that trek to 10.6% among those that use private/company car.
There were no statistically significant associations between overall quality of life and smoking (p = 57), alcohol intake (p = 0.83) and exercise (p = 0.09).
Table 19: Associations between blood pressure, BMI and overall QOL
Blood pressure (mmHg) Overall quality of life (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Systolic blood pressure
< 120 21 (10.2) 149 (72.3) 36 (17.5) 206 11.42 4 0.02
120 – 139 8 (5.1) 108 (68.8) 41 (26.1) 157
≥ 140 3 (8.1) 20 (54.1) 14 (37.8) 37
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Diastolic blood pressure
< 80 14 (8.3) 121 (72.0) 33 (19.7) 168 2.84 4 0.59
80 – 89 11 (8.0) 96 (69.6) 31 (22.4) 138
≥ 90 7 (7.5) 60 (63.8) 27 (28.7) 94
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Blood pressure status
Raised 7 (6.9) 62 (61.4) 32 (31.7) 101 6.14 2 0.05
Not raised 25 (8.4) 215 (71.9) 59 (19.7) 299 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
<18.5 1 (5.0) 14 (70.0) 5 (25.0) 20 5.55 6 0.48
18.5 – 25.0 20 (9.9) 137 (67.8) 45 (22.3) 202 25.1 – 30.0 8 (6.6) 90 (74.4) 23 (19.0) 121
>30.0 3 (5.3) 36 (63.2) 18 (31.5) 57
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400
There was a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and their systolic blood pressure (p = 0.02). A higher proportion (10.2%) of respondents with systolic blood pressure <120mmHg had good quality of life compared with 5.1% and 8.1% among those with systolic blood pressure between 120 – 139mmHg and ≥140mmHg respectively.
There was also a statistically significant association between overall quality of life of respondents and whether they had raised blood pressure or not (p = 0.05). A higher proportion (31.7%) of respondents with raised blood pressure had poor quality of life compared with 19.7% among those without raised blood pressure.
Table 20: Associations between blood pressure, BMI and satisfaction with health Blood pressure (mmHg) Satisfaction with health (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Systolic blood pressure
< 120 35 (17.0) 149 (72.3) 22 (10.7) 206 30.66 4 0.00 120 – 139 17 (10.8) 112 (71.3) 28 (17.9) 157
≥ 140 5 (13.5) 15 (40.5) 17 (46.0) 37
Total 57 (14.2) 276 (69.0) 67 (16.8) 400 Diastolic blood pressure
< 80 24 (14.3) 127 (75.6) 17 (10.1) 168 13.68 4 0.001
80 - 89 21 (15.2) 93 (67.4) 24 (17.4) 138
≥ 90 12 (12.8) 56 (59.6) 26 (27.7) 94
Total 57 (14.2) 276 (69.0) 67 (16.8) 400 Blood pressure status
Raised 12 (11.9) 58 (57.4) 31 (30.7) 101 18.84 2 0.0001
Not raised 45 (15.1) 218 (72.9) 36 (12.0) 299 Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400 Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
<18.5 3 (15.0) 14 (70.0) 3 (15.0) 20 11.27 6 0.08
18.5 – 25.0 32 (15.9) 136 (67.3) 34 (16.8) 202 25.1 – 30.0 17 (14.1) 91 (75.2) 13 (10.7) 121
>30.0 5 (8.8) 35 (61.4) 17 (29.8) 57
Total 32 (8.0) 277 (69.3) 91 (22.7) 400
There was a statistically significant association between satisfaction with health among the respondents and their systolic blood pressure (p = 0.00). A lower proportion (10.7%) of respondents with systolic blood pressure <120mmHg had poor satisfaction with health compared with 17.9% and 46.0% among those with systolic blood pressure between 120 – 139mmHg and ≥140mmHg respectively.
There was also a statistically significant association between satisfaction with health and diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.001). A lower proportion (10.1%) of respondents with diastolic blood pressure <80mmHg had poor satisfaction with health compared with 17.4% and 27.7% among those with diastolic blood pressure between 80 – 89mmHg and
≥90mmHg respectively.
There was also a statistically significant association between satisfaction with health among the respondents and whether they had raised blood pressure or not (p = 0.0001). A higher proportion (30.7%) of those with raised blood pressure had satisfaction with health compared with 12.0% among without raised blood pressure.
Table 21: Associations between socio-economic variables global domain of HQOL Socio-economic variable Global domain of HQOL (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Education
No formal 2 (3.6) 31 (56.4) 22 (40.0) 55 96.14 6 0.00
Primary 1 (1.5) 51 (73.9) 17 (24.6) 69
Secondary 16 (7.7) 176 (84.6) 16 (7.7) 208
Tertiary 24 (35.3) 41 (60.3) 3 (4.4) 68
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400
Occupation
Professional 0 (0) 4 (100) 0 (0) 4 87.20 12 0.00
Intermediate 12 (44.4) 14 (51.9) 1 (3.7) 27
Non-manual skilled 12 (38.7) 18 (58.1) 1 (3.2) 31
Manual skilled 6 (5.9) 80 (78.4) 16 (15.7) 102
Partly skilled 4 (4.2) 84 (87.5) 8 (8.3) 96
Unskilled 6 (6.2) 64 (66.0) 27 (27.8) 97
Student/Housewife 3 (7.0) 35 (81.4) 5 (11.6) 43
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400
Employment status
Employed 39 (11.4) 256 (74.6) 48 (14.0) 343 1.29 2 0.53
0.53٭
Not employed 4 (7.0) 43 (75.4) 10 (17.6) 57
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400
Type of employment n = 343
Public 3 (14.3) 17 (80.9) 1 (4.8) 21 17.44 4 0.002
Private – self 15 (7.0) 160 (74.8) 39 (18.2) 214 Private – non-self 21 (19.4) 79 (73.2) 8 (7.4) 108
Total 39 (11.4) 256 (74.6) 48 (14.0) 343
n = 343
Personal monthly income
<10,000 2 (2.6) 55 (70.5) 21 (26.9) 78 51.95 6 0.00
10,000 – 20,000 6 (4.8) 105 (84.0) 14 (11.2) 125 20,001 – 50,000 16 (16.2) 71 (71.7) 12 (12.1) 99
>50,000 15 (36.6) 25 (61.0) 1 (2.4) 41
Total 39 (1.4) 256 (74.6) 48 (14.0) 343
Family monthly income (₦) n = 340
< 10,000 - 15 (71.4) 6 (28.6) 21 81.41 8 0.00
10,000 – 20,000 1 (1.3) 58 (74.4) 19 (24.3) 78 20,000 – 50,000 11 (9.3) 95 (80.5) 12 (10.2) 118 50,001 – 100,000 10 (11.5) 70 (80.5) 7 (8.0) 87
> 100,000 19 (52.8) 15 (41.7) 2 (5.6) 36
Total 41 (12.1) 253 (74.4) 46 (13.5) 340
Expenditure on food (₦) n = 369
<10,000 3 (4.1) 59 (80.8) 11 (15.1) 73 21.73 6 0.001
10,000 – 20,000 20 (9.4) 158 (74.2) 35 (16.4) 213
20,001 – 30,000 7 (18.9) 28 (75.7) 2 (5.4) 37
>30,000 13 (28.2) 28 (60.9) 5 (10.9) 46
Total 43 (11.6) 273 (74.0) 53 (14.4) 369
Note: 340 knew family monthly income, 369 knew family expenditure on food
*Fisher exact p-value
There was a statistically significant association between global domain of HRQOL of the respondents and their level of education (p = 0.00). The proportion with poor quality of life decreased with increased level of education from 40.0% among those with no formal education to 4.4% among those with tertiary education.
There was also a statistically significant association between global domain of HRQOL and occupation (p = 0.00). The proportion of respondents with poor quality of life was highest (27.8%) among the unskilled workers.
There was also a statistically significant association between global domain of HRQOL and type of employment (p = 0.02). A greater proportion (18.2%) of those who were self employed had poor quality of life compared with 4.8% and 7.4% of those who were employed in the public and private (non-self) sectors respectively.
The global domain of HRQOL also significantly increased with personal income (p
Table 22: Associations between blood pressure, BMI and global domain of HQOL Blood pressure (mmHg) Global domain of HQOL (%) X2 df p
Good Fair Poor Total
Systolic blood pressure
< 120 26 (12.6) 163 (79.1) 17 (8.3) 206 24.27 4 0.0001 120 – 139 15 (9.6) 115 (73.2) 27 (17.2) 157
≥ 140 2 (5.4) 21 (56.8) 14 (37.8) 37
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400 Diastolic blood pressure
< 80 19 (11.3) 138 (82.1) 11 (6.6) 168 20.70 4 0.0004 80 - 89 17 (12.3) 99 (71.7) 22 (16.0) 138
≥ 90 7 (7.4) 62 (66.0) 25 (26.6) 94
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400 Blood pressure status
Raised 7 (6.9) 67 (66.4) 27 (26.7) 101 17.06 2 0.0002
Not raised 36 (12.0) 232 (77.6) 31 (10.4) 299 Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400 Body Mass Index (kgm-2)
Underweight 2 (10.0) 17 (85.0) 1 (5.0) 20 6.91 6 0.33 Normal 25 (12.4) 148 (73.3) 29 (14.3) 202
Overweight 13 (10.7) 93 (76.9) 15 (12.4) 121
Obesity 3 (5.3) 41 (71.9) 13 (22.8) 57
Total 43 (10.7) 299 (74.8) 58 (14.5) 400)
There were statistically significant associations between global domain of HRQOL of the respondents and their systolic blood pressure (p = 0.0001), diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.0004) and whether they had raised blood pressure or not (p = 0.0002). A greater proportion (12.6%) of respondents with systolic blood pressure <120mmHg had good quality of life compared with 9.6% and 5.4% among those with systolic blood pressure between 120 – 139mmHg and ≥140mmHg respectively. A lower proportion (6.6%) of respondents with diastolic blood pressure <80mmHg had poor satisfaction with health compared with 16.0% and 26.6% among those with diastolic blood pressure between 80 – 89mmHg and ≥90mmHg respectively. A lower proportion (6.9%) of those with raised blood pressure had good quality of life compared with 12.0% among those without raised blood pressure.