Implications in practice for collaborative trust in the UK construction industry

4. Chapter Four: The influences and challenges for collaborative trust in the UK construction industry

4.1 Introduction

The chapter will outline the motivational, ethical and organisational factors which influence the development of collaborative trust in the UK construction industry. These will include communication and cooperation initiatives which could be introduced as trust building mechanisms within partnering arrangements.

Implications in practice will be discussed alongside those construction projects which could most benefit from trust building initiatives and strategies.

4.2 Initiatives and factors that influence collaborative trust in the UK construction industry

Ibrahim et al. (2013, as cited in She, 2013) identified respect and trust as two of the most important factors, alongside communication, single team focus and senior management commitment in influencing collaboration and team integration. Some have attempted to group such factors and differentiate them based on their soft (behavioural) or hard (project specific) nature. The former category could comprise the attributes of trust including honesty, integrity, relationships, cooperation,

communication and openness. The latter, however, may comprise such measures as job satisfaction and issues of a performance, management and process orientated nature which includes management expertise, resources, quality, ability and problem resolution process (She, 2013; Cheung et al., 2011, pp. 184-196). Furthermore, psychological and social factors could have a significant effect on partnering and project team integration but have not been widely explored in past research (Bresnen and Marshall, 2010; Thurairajah et al., 2006, pp.1-5). To add another strand to this debate, Branzei et al. (2007) advocated that benevolence related factors can greatly influence the quality and intensity of trust. Perhaps this position could support the importance of the aforementioned behavioural attributes and these could be indicated by trustees’ willingness to cooperate, reciprocate and be loyal. This could be interpreted to be especially important when there is scope to

4.3 Influence of motivational factors on collaborative trust in the UK construction industry

4.3.1 Potential benefits of motivational initiatives

There is an argument that collaborative trust is best generated through motivational means in partners putting cooperation before self-interests and competition (Wong et al., 2005; Story et al., 2009; Mansfield et al., 1991). Considering this perspective tangentially, others have suggested that motivational initiatives may indeed present the most appropriate vehicle for collaboration between organisations (Fawcett et al., 2012). For these reasons this section specifically deals with articulating the

arguments and issues around such initiatives.

In considering motivational factors affecting partnering it is important to consider what motivation actually means. Tabassi and Bakar (2009) outlined that “motivation may be defined as the characteristic of an individual willing to expend effort towards a particular set of behaviours”. Furthermore, they explained that “the success of a construction organisation largely depends upon the quality and morale of its people” and therein suggested that motivation is an important management tool in facilitating performance. A similar view is supported by Steers et al. (1996) who outlined that motivation and communication can have a direct effect on the performance of employees. Further reinforcement of these views came from Brooks (2006) who explained that employees need to feel confident and comfortable within an

organisation in order to produce successful results and engage in teamwork, and therein reinforcing the importance of motivation.

4.3.2 Types of motivational initiatives

The review of literature has revealed ‘internally driven’ and ‘instrumental driven’ types of motivational initiatives, designed to encourage individuals to work more collaboratively. In the latter case, certainly within the construction industry, such motivational enhancement has been facilitated by use of financial incentives (Tyler and Blader, 2003; Hertzberg et al., 1959).

Many studies have focused on the applications for motivational management within the workplace and within many different scenarios. Walker (2009), for instance,

suggested application of these management practices into partnering arrangements. His view was justified on the basis that collaborations do not always remove potential disputes and problems and accordingly, there is the need for regular motivational- based performance reviews to promote corrective action. These could form part of partnering workshops and using innovative motivational initiatives seek to pool ideas, transfer knowledge, allow open communication, capture feedback and lessons learnt and ensure alignment to aims, visions and the spirit of the partnering arrangement (Beach et al., 2005, pp.611-621; Cheung et al., 2001, p.245; Coulson Thomas, 2005, pp.179-181). Despite the aforementioned consensus of supporting views, the notion of motivational measures has attracted their critics in the past. Gadde and Dubois (2010, pp.260-262), for instance, presented a very different angle on such initiatives. Their studies were generally dismissive of the usefulness of workshops and the scope for lessons learnt to be carried over from one project to another, owing to the bespoke nature of projects. From an objective perspective it is not difficult to

understand the basis of such scepticism but perhaps it reflects an isolated opinion, far outweighed by the overwhelming support in favor of such initiatives.

4.3.3 Communication and cooperation

The study of trust in partnering is suggested by some to be strongly linked with other qualities such as communications and cooperation (Silva et al., 2012). Clearly in such cases it could add complexity to the research. Open communications, by way of example, was described by Doney et al. (2005) as being “an essential prerequisite of trust”. Support for the argument came from Steers et al. (1996), who outlined that communications can have a direct effect on motivation and thereby the performance of employees and organisations as a whole. Both these views are supported by Carnall (1999) who explained that poor communication lines and behaviours, where employees feel that they are not being consulted or made aware of decisions which affect their work, can severely affect motivation levels. In consideration of the aforementioned opinions, communications could be construed to be an important motivational construct of trust. A judgement could be made that this is particularly the case in partnering practices, and justified on the basis that open and timely dialogue to overcome frequent day to day operational issues can reduce conflicts and

reinforced the view that communication is an essential mechanism for bonding between partners, allowing them to initiate and develop shared norms and values. Turner et al. (2003, as cited in Dwivedula and Bredillet, 2010) identified examples of motivational initiatives linked to communication, including giving good clarity,

feedback on performance and a feeling of achievement and interaction. Applied specifically to construction, they suggested that communication could be improved in such a way by including project teams in regular briefings and meetings to discuss and agree how their respective important inputs interrelate with the project as a whole. Conversely, where communications are poor, individuals within construction organisations could become resentful and anxious if they do not find out information first hand and feel they are being bypassed or undervalued through not being

consulted (Brooks, 2006). This could be interpreted to be particularly applicable within organisations that employ autocratic styles of management. Alongside communications, Nesan and Holt (1999) placed emphasis on recognition as an effective means for inspiring motivation and enthusiasm amongst construction employees to benefit partnering practices. They explained that recognition is very successful when applied specifically to teams as opposed to individuals.

4.3.4 Training, education and continual professional development

The potential motivational benefits from training and education of managers including construction professionals have been much debated over recent years. Alderfer’s theory of motivation (1969), based on existence, relatedness and growth could offer an interesting insight in this respect (Alderfer, 1969; Deci, 1975). The study concluded that individuals have needs to develop and where they feel that these are not being met, regress to satisfying lower needs such as respectability or safety needs. In an attempt to apply the theory within a construction context, studies carried out on UK construction companies found that those which invested in training and staff development initiatives had over time benefitted from increased

collaboratively with the other members of project teams (CIC, 2007). Further support for the theory comes from Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010) who explained that

providing construction professionals with training will generate opportunities for further learning and growth. This will create an upward cycle of motivational growth linked to career progression and further learning aspirations.

There is an argument that both hard and soft skills are developed through training and education and lack of investment in these will adversely affect partnering

arrangements (Ng et al., 2002). Furthermore, Vroom’s ‘expectancy’ theory (1964, as cited in Eerde and Thierry, 1996) could be related to training and staff development in that ‘investment in people’ could improve the belief and self-confidence of project teams in their individual capabilities. Perhaps in realising such beneficial impacts, measures could include job advancement, participative decision making, developing competencies and increasing individuals’ sense of achievement. Taking this

argument to another level, some would argue that Vroom’s theory is particularly relevant in this context, being multidimensional; it can be related to all levels of construction industry personnel (Eerde and Thierry, 1996). Despite these obvious advantages, Lu and Yan (2007) presented what could be interpreted as a negative perspective, opposing the aforementioned arguments when applied to the

construction industry. Their model, perhaps sceptically, focused on many potential obstacles linked with poor training and education around the principles and benefits of partnering philosophies and trust building mechanisms. Possibly, to address these potential deficiencies, training could be focused more on motivational management to develop collaborative potential and to encourage the appropriate level of relationships (Tabassi et al., 2011).

Kaming et al. (1998, pp.130-136) opined that poor organisational management systems for coordinating construction employees and poor respect between

construction colleagues can be a highly damaging factor on motivation levels. This would suggest that more focus through training to encourage cooperation and planning between construction professionals could be highly beneficial. The

argument for improved training is supported from another perspective by Price et al. (2004, as cited in Dwivedula and Bredillet, 2010). They explained that organisational structures on construction projects have become increasingly flat over recent years and accordingly, employee empowerment through training has become an important source of work motivation. Support for a similar argument comes from the London Chamber of Commerce and Industry who advocate that current training and qualifications are sometimes lagging behind changing practices and modern methods of construction management. Accordingly, whilst conceding that colleges and universities have reduced places available on construction-related courses

following the recent recession, they argued that training providers, sector bodies and leaders of industry need to communicate better to improve the overall capacity to respond to the modern needs of the construction industry (LCCI, 2014).

4.3.5 Relationships and teamwork

Research has highlighted that adversarial practices and tenuous relationships within the UK construction industry have presented a major hindrance in improving

collaboration, integration and trust across the whole supply chain (Ikechukwu and Kapogiannis, 2014; Ross, 2011). Perhaps this explains why Dainty et al. (2007) referred to the quest for greater transparency within the sector as the main driver for creating and developing trust. Furthermore, Lam and Gurland (2008) suggested that the relationships and practices of construction organisations can influence the

responsibility assigned to project teams. For instance, when individuals or groups are trusted to do a job and given autonomy to carry it out, this can generate an increase in self-determined work motivation leading to improved job satisfaction. However, they conceded that potential adversarial attitudes, behaviours and practices could affect the degree of collaborative working between partnering organisations. This is supported by the findings of Packham et al. (2003) which determined that, although construction partnering can take a considerable time to develop; its success is heavily influenced by the old traditional practices and beliefs within the industry. On this theme, Baiden et al. (2006, p.13), attempted to explain why such traditional practices exist, suggesting that these are largely attributable to barriers created by the short term duration of most building projects.

Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010) advocated that there should be “a complete cultural change within the construction industry” giving more autonomy and extensive

training for all construction personnel, thus incentivising creativity. The similar view is presented by Reichers and Schneider (1990) who described a ‘shared perceptions approach’ to organisational practices where a positive climate is developed when members of the work group are interacting with each other to attain common goals. Findings to support the argument come from Tabassi and Bakar (2009) who referred to a ‘participative approach’ in addressing and developing good

supervisor/subordinate relationships and motivation levels through the creation of cohesive work groups. However, many have been somewhat dismissive over such

claims on the virtues of intrinsic motivational measures. One particularly discerning opinion, in this regard, came from Rose and Manley (2010, pp.252-254) who argued that extrinsic measures, by way of financial incentives, are far more effective at enhancing motivational levels. Considering these two differing views, perhaps it is the findings of Story et al. (2009) which present a more balanced perspective in recognising that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are required for collaborative working relationships to work at their optimum levels. Accordingly, it may suggest that a ‘blended approach’ may offer the best opportunity for partnering to work best. Kaming et al. (1998, pp130-136) approached the problem of motivational

management from a very different angle. Rather than the aforementioned arguments which have focused on motivational measures, their research considered ‘de-

motivating factors’ within organisations. Their studies found that these are not necessarily the exact opposite of ‘motivating factors’ but can have a particularly damaging effect on trust at both an individual and corporate level. Furthermore, they explained that there is evidence to suggest that most de-motivating factors originate from apparent trivial causes yet their impact is often significant. Perhaps partnering workshops should raise awareness of such potential problems and seek to

overcome them before they escalate.

4.3.6 Fairness and equality

When considering motivation from a theoretical perspective, Adams (Deci, 1975) stressed that all staff have desires to be treated the same as their colleagues within organisations. If this does not happen it could result in them feeling undervalued with implications of reduced effort and productivity and in some cases employees leaving organisations altogether. Taking this a stage further, Das and Teng (1998) applied the theory to construction partnering and stressed the importance of maintaining fair relationships. They warned that unfair relationships will make one partner feel that the other is taking advantage which could undermine trust. This premise could be interpreted to suggest that equity may be potentially one of the most important factors for maintaining partnering relationships. Similar findings came from

Bellamere et al. (2010) who concluded that where workers experienced high levels of what they perceived to be inequality, alienation or adversarial pressure within an organisational work environment it could have a negative effect on their productivity,

through lack of motivation. Perhaps motivation, therefore, could play a key role in optimising outputs rather than organisations simply focusing on efficiencies through partnering.

4.4 Influence of ethical factors on collaborative trust in the UK construction industry

4.4.1 The importance of ethical considerations for partnering

Many studies have in the past attempted to explain possible relationships between ethical factors and trust and Colquitt et al. (2007) is one such example. They found that integrity, in particular, is a fundamental constructs for fostering trust and has a strong influence upon it. Further support comes from Adams (2009) who reinforced the importance of ‘integrity based trust’ from an ethical standpoint for constructional professionals. These perspectives seem to justify the claim made by Walker (2009) that “it is vital that project managers conduct their work in an ethical manner”. It could signify that individual relationships prevalent within the construction industry may benefit from specific training covering integrity awareness, possibly facilitated through workshops. It is for these reasons that the study of ethical considerations when applied to partnering practices could be a useful tool for developing trust.

4.4.2 The definition of ethics

When attempting to understand what ethics are there have been many attempts to describe and explain their meaning. Definitions have included “the philosophy of human conduct with an emphasis on moral questions of right and wrong” (Helgado, 2008), “the system of moral values by which the rights and wrongs of behaviour are judged” (Rosenthal and Rosnow, 1991) and “a moral philosophy that involves

systematising, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour” (Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2010). When considering ‘professional’ ethics specifically, Lere (2003) described them as “a way and approach between

professionals as experts and clients as lay people”. Conversely, when examining professional ethics specifically within a construction context, the RICS defined ethics as “a set of moral principles extending beyond a formal code of conduct” (RICS, 2010). Given these alternative and diverse definitions it is probably not surprising that Vitell and Festervard (1987) explained that complications have arisen and

ethical dilemmas been created by having no universally accepted definition of ethics. This argument is supported by the RICS Professional Ethics Working Party (RICS, 2010) who accepted that such potential ambiguity and inconsistency could pose significant problems for the profession. From this it could be interpreted that without common understanding in this area, especially with regard to professional codes of conduct, there could be a disparity of what practices could be deemed to be ethical or non-ethical. This may go some way to explaining why breaches have occurred in the past, with trust and reputations potentially at stake.

4.4.3 Ethics from a professional perspective

There is a view that ethics is a vital and essential practice requirement as it

engenders trust of the general public and preserves employers’ interests (Rahman et al., 2007; Armstrong, 2004). Furthermore, for construction professionals to survive and prosper will require public confidence which is dependent on ethical conduct and professional knowledge (RIBA, 2005; RICS, 2010; CIOB, 2013). These perspectives may explain why relationships between construction professionals and employers rely on professional ethics and trust especially since fee agreements cannot

accurately specify all financial contract contingencies for possible additional services (Walker, 2009). In this way perhaps it demonstrates one of the important links

between ethics and trust.

Notwithstanding the importance of ethics, another problem the construction industry faces relates to its reputation and the general perception of the public (Henry, 1995; Robson, 2000; Stansbury, 2008). Such a claim is justified by the increasing number of legal disputes emanating from behaviours and practices (Vee and Skitmore, 2003), the relatively high turnover and the perceived motivation of greed for

increased profits (Fellows et al., 2004). In an attempt to explain the dilemma, some would accuse the UK construction industry of having adversarial management styles geared to aggression and deception rather than professional approaches

underpinned by integrity, honesty, transparency, fairness and trust (Walker, 2009). According to Liu et al. (2004) this potentially controversial perspective could be synonymous with differentiation and fragmentation within the construction industry which can pose difficulties in aligning attitudes, beliefs and standards and thus dilemmas in what is ethical or non-ethical. Perhaps to address the problem,