Implications for theories

9.2.1 Selective acculturation

The objective of this research was to study the cultural fit between outdoor adventure education programmes and Chinese Canadians. Although the fundamental cultural philosophies are different, there was no significant cultural clash between Chinese Canadians after participating in adventure education programmes. Empirical data generated from this research are consistent with the acculturation theories suggested by Chia and Costigan (2006) and Keefe and Padilla (1987): Chinese Canadians are practising selective acculturation for pragmatic reasons. Chinese Canadians parents act strategically; they adopt certain traits of the mainstream culture that facilitate their adjustment and more particularly that of their children, to the Canadian society. This multi-dimensional approach to acculturation also supports the four acculturation modes suggested by Berry et al. (1990), which argue that acculturation is not linear and uni-dimensional. Berry‟s theory suggested that acculturation is an ongoing process; it allows Chinese Canadians to integrate into the majority Canadian culture while simultaneously retaining their own traditional Chinese culture. This approach also allows their children to practise Western “individualistic” culture in their own social circles with their majority Canadian friends (public domain), while retaining their traditional Chinese “collective” culture within their family (private domain). This practice certainly reduces the possibility of cultural clash between the host country and Chinese people. In promoting multi-culturalism, Canada has successfully brought people from different ethnicities together and built a society that welcomes diversity under the same governmental system. People from different cultural backgrounds can enjoy the freedom of choosing what is suited to their ethnic culture without the pressure of being pushed to assimilate into the majority culture.

9.2.2 Ethnic enclosure

Although most of the parents in this research, in terms of their daily living, are in an ethnic enclosure mode (Stodolska et.al, 2007), they should not be classified as being in a separation or marginalisation mode (Berry et al., 1986). They integrate with Canadian society, some more than others, and most of them showed passion to make Canada their home. Most of the parents who participated in the interviews had full-time jobs and interact with majority Canadians in

different occasions and levels of intensity. They practice Canadian culture in public but insist on maintaining their Chinese heritage at home (private). The private domain of this group of Chinese Canadian parents is strong as they do not accept Western family values and the freedom given to the young generation before they become adult. They are particularly concerned about their children‟s interactions with the opposite sex and they have high expectations for the academic and occupational achievement of their children. It is the latter expectation which fuels the parents‟ pragmatic approach to mainstream culture – they want their children to be “successful” in the mainstream Canadian world.

9.2.3 Pragmatism and acculturation

Parents still insist on retaining Chinese culture as their ethnic identity and consider themselves as Chinese more than Canadian no matter what their length of stay, but this is obviously different for the second generation. Young participants generally consider themselves as being “white-washed”; they consider themselves Canadian culturally and only their “history” makes them feel that they are Chinese. An atmosphere of pragmatism generates its own tensions from both ends, between retaining Chinese culture and assimilation into Canadian culture. As a result, Chinese immigrants may not accept the entire Canadian cultural system that they encounter, but choose what to adopt and what to retain according to the needs and their cultural preferences (Berry et al. 2006). Parents want their children to develop good self-reliance and self-effectiveness because they know that this is important for them to survive in Western society where individualism is dominant, but they fear that their children may become self-centred and rebellious. Such behaviour would be inappropriate in traditional Chinese social circles. Therefore, parents support and encourage their children to practice Canadian individualistic cultural behaviour in the public domain but require them to practice Chinese culture in their family.

9.2.4 Uncertainty avoidance

Parental control among Chinese Canadian families is more authoritarian than in local Caucasian families (Li, 2002). A more conservative way of controlling social development for girls is obvious among Chinese families. Parents are more restrictive in the peer group involvment of their daughters than their sons (Bond, 1996). These findings support the suggestion of

“Uncertainty Avoidance” suggested by Hofstede (1983), which stated that Chinese people show high reluctance in facing uncertainty. Their interpretation of risk is based on the traditional Chinese gender ideology and cultural interpretation on masculinity and femininity. Camping with friends is strictly forbidden for the girls. Some adventure programmes require over-night residential experience away from home; parents generally worry more about their daughters‟ safety than the sons. Parents need to be convinced and trust the organiser before they allow the children to participate in over-night camping. Parents seemingly view participation in AE as a way of acculturating to Canadian society. They know that outdoor recreation is popular among White Canadians but they lack the knowledge to be involved. It is not their wish to join some Caucasian outdoor groups as they are uncertain about the safety of their children. Findings from this research show that they have more confidence in their children joining groups that they are familiar with or are organised by good “brands” such as the Scouts or church groups. Chinese parents may participate in outdoor recreation after their children receive formal training. Family camping fits well with the concept of uncertainty avoidance as parents can have full control of the participants (selective group) and activities in the camp.

9.2.5 Intergenerational acculturation gap

Theories suggest that since there are significant differences in the exposure to the majority culture between the parents and their children, their pace of acculturation may not be the same and thus an intergenerational acculturation gap may develop (Kwak, 2003). Findings from this investigation show that adventure education programmes provided by Enoch and the 16th Burnaby Scout Group help to mediate the possibility of tension between the two generations. Adventure education provides a new dimension of life experience for the two generations and these experiences give rise to positive communication opportunities. This research reveals that the younger generation experienced something that the older generation has not experienced before and they are excited to share this with their parents. Parents can make use of the opportunity to show their appreciation of their children‟s achievement and also convey their concerns about them in an acceptable way. In some cases, there is significant reduction in the acculturation gap between parents and children and the general feedback from parents about adventure education is positive.