The Importance of Analogy

Some researchers have used the basic ideas of Saussure and Peirce’s semiotics to attempt to understand not only specific instances of signs, but using how we interpret‘signs’as an important tool in understanding perception and cognition in general. Douglas Hofstader and colleagues at the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition at Indiana University who investigate computational models of fundamental human thought, put analogy-making at the core of this work. Their contention is that analogy is the core of cognition [66] and that mechanisms such as isomorphism and recursion of one concept to another is how complex thought, and therefore systems which model thought, are achieved [68]. Although their work differs in focus from this thesis in that they are in the domain of cognitive science and not human-computer interaction, the perceptual problems faced can be strikingly similar. A quote from a textbook published by the group Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies concisely shows this problem:

The quality of an analogy between two situations depends almost entirely on one’s perception of the situations. If Ronald Reagan were to evaluate the validity of an analogy between the U.S. role in Nicaragua and the Soviet Union’s role in Afghanistan, he would undoubtedly see it as a poor one. Others might consider the analogy excellent. The difference would come from different perceptions and this representations, of the situations themselves. Reagan’s internal representation of the Nicaraguan situation is certainly quite different from [Nicaraguan leader] Daniel Ortega’s. [67] (p. 179)

This problem is incredibly similar to the problem of alignment between how a designer ex- pects or intends a data-sound or data-vibration mapping to be perceived by the user. Just as Reagan and Ortega may have differing internal representations on the U.S/Nicaragua situation, two individuals may differ in their internal representations of a mapping between temperature and pitch, or pressure and vibration frequency. The fact that this problem can be found in multi- ple domains speaks to how a person’s own internal representation of something is fundamental to how they perceive stimuli and therefore perceive information.

In a similar, but more objectivist approach, in Philosophy in the Flesh [90] Lakoff & John- son posit that concrete experiences ground abstract concepts. For example, in the context of audio, a concrete experience such as hearing a fire alarm can help us ground and process the concept of danger or alarm. Furthermore, such abstract concept-grounding experiences may also come from media — books, films, television, video games, etc. To return to the Geiger counter metaphor, even if someone has not experienced a Geiger counter (or some other system which invokes a similar data-sound mapping by analogy such as a parking sensor), it is more likely that they have come across this metaphor being used in media. For example, in the film

Aliensfrom 1986 [24] and the more recent video game Alien: Isolation from 2014 [32], where

a number of key scenes involve a tracker which outputs increasing audio cues as moving objects get closer to the device. Additionally, in Alien: Isolation the controller outputs corresponding vibrotactile cues (Figure 2.15). From experiencing this parameter mapping, whether it be via a real world event such as using a Geiger counter or parking sensor or through media, the core abstract concept of the mapping is grounded, here being: increasing proximity of some object results in increasing frequency of repetition of audio cues. This mapping can then be extended by analogy to other, similar situations.

Figure 2.15: The tracker device from Alien: Isolation [32].

2.4.2

Summary

Aligning how a designer intends a mapping to be received with how a user actually receives it is a significant challenge in the design of parameter mappings. Users may have differing mental models of a mapping based on a variety of factors including past experiences, analogies from other contexts, or exposure to media, making it challenging for the designer to predict how a mapping will be perceived. Theories of semiotics and analogy-making can provide a useful

framework for how these internal models and their relationship with the information being trans- mitted can be potentially applied in the design of data-sound and data-vibration mappings. A number of researchers have advocated for a semiotic approach to sonification design, however there is little to no mention of semiotics in vibrotactile feedback literature therefore it cannot be determined if there is a similar sentiment from researchers in the field. Some researchers have taken the fundamentals of semiotics and applied it broadly to thinking in general. Douglas Hofstader et al. [67] use analogy as a way of understanding human thought and to inform com- putational models of human thought and Lakoff & Johnson [90] say that all abstract concepts are built from concrete experiences, such as fire alarm = danger. Such experiences can not only be obtained through direct experience, but also be from many different media like films, books or video games and the this experience-concept relationship can be applied by analogy to other situations. This theoretical background shows the potential depth of how people process infor- mation. This depth means that predicting how someone will receive and process data-sound or data-vibration mappings is challenging, but more positively it shows that it may be possi- ble to utilise this phenomena to design richer and more usable auditory and vibrotactile display systems.