Indigenous Knowledge: Empowerment and Sustainability

Currently, recognition is given to the important role indigenous knowledge plays in decision making, the way in which indigenous organizations facilitate the identification and focus of concern of community problems and the importance of searching for solutions which result in local-level experimentation and innovation. In spite of the arguments made on subjective versus objective views, qualitative versus quantitative techniques, practical versus theoretical approaches, therefore reinforcing the ethnocentric opinions of Western experts towards non- Western knowledge of the past, there is general agreement that the explanation of human behaviour is principally based on the interaction between people’s knowledge, beliefs and practices.

The methods used to assess and measure the concept of ‘knowledge’ in both Western and non-Western societies have been sufficiently developed along linguistic, philosophical and socio-cultural principles to allow valid comparisons. As a consequence, various studies have tried to identify the similarities and differences between indigenous and scientific knowledge (cf. Warren, Slikkerveer & Titilola 1989, Johannes 1989, Agrawal 1999, Berkes 1999). Although most of the studies are inclined to emphasise the disparities between knowledge systems, they do substantiate the convenient use of knowledge assessment as a generally applicable parameter.

The principal conclusion is, that regardless of the categorisation of knowledge systems, their determinant role in forming human behaviour has been shown in many pieces of behavioural researches, around the globe.

The majority of the populations in most developing countries, who are mostly peasants (petani), represent a variety of ethnic groups and languages, and for the majority of them their knowledge systems have never been recorded systematically, which means that they are not easily accessible to outsiders to the community. Liebenstein (2000) states that the characteristics of indigenous knowledge are that it is generated within a community, it is location and culture specific, it is cost-effective, sustainable and is importantly the basis for decision making and survival strategies. Unfortunately, it has not been systematically documented even though it usually concerns critical issues of human and animal life such as primary production, life and natural resource management. Despite its general academic anonymity, it is dynamic, based on innovation, adaptation and experimentation. Very importantly, it is oral and rural in nature. These so-called knowledge systems are encapsulated in the local culture and transmitted through the oral tradition. Although most definitions of indigenous knowledge refer to the accumulation of experience and the passing down of information from one generation to the next within a society, the fact that people living in developing countries have been producing knowledge and strategies enabling them to survive in a balanced relationship with their natural and social environment seems to be rather disregarded. This widespread situation in which indigenous knowledge is ignored and neglected is largely attributable to the dominance of the Western knowledge system.

Meanwhile, Brokensha et al. (1980) state, that trying the undertake development by disregarding the people’s knowledge is almost certain to ensure failure. In the same vein, rejecting the role of culture, Wang & Dissanayake (1984) note, would disprove the continuity which it has provided during all periods of change and hence, deny the history of the people involved. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to have an understanding of the dynamics of the indigenous systems before recommending changes which might possibly not exert a positive affect on the local conditions, as knowledge is transmitted in the context of an activity which is relevant to its situation. Writing on this problem, Ruddle (1993: 23) notes

that: ‘Some knowledge, however, is taught and learned for enjoyment, such as the entertainment provided by the narration of legends…’. In Indonesia, the entertainment provided by the narration of legends is purveyed by story tellers (pendongeng) or puppet players (dalang), who transmit information through the mouths of the puppets (wayang4), and step by step they socialize members of the younger generation into a group’s tradition as well.

Furthermore, Wang (1982) notes that although, since the 1970s, there has been renewed interest in studying and demonstrating the positive role of local culture in social change, so far little attention has been paid to how knowledge is gathered and shared within local communities. Apparently, indigenous knowledge is essential to development since culture is important to providing a context for development and change as well as to maintaining a certain degree of continuity. Therefore, it is often suggested that it must be gathered and documented in a rational and systematic way (cf. Brokensha et al., 1980; Warren et al., 1993). Warren et al. (1993) state that the collection and storage of indigenous knowledge should be improved by adequate dissemination and exchange of information among interested parties, using such vehicles as newsletters, journals and other media. In this fashion, indigenous knowledge can make a significant contribution to settling local problems. In recent years, there has been a tremendous flow of information from developing countries about the role indigenous knowledge plays in a range of sectors such as agriculture (intercropping techniques, animal health care, seed varieties), biology (botany, fish-breeding techniques), human health care (through traditional medicine), the use and management of natural resources (soil conservation, irrigation and other forms of water management), education (oral traditions, local languages) and poverty reduction in general. Over the last two decades, scholars, policymakers and development practitioners have shown an increasing interest in indigenous knowledge by establishing links between indigenous knowledge and science and by acknowledging the relevance of indigenous knowledge to education systems and development issues (cf. Okoli 2006).

Meanwhile, Brascoupé & Mann (2001) note that increased interest in indigenous knowledge is attributable to the wide range of commercial and scientific utilizations to which it can be put. This aspect is especially noticeable in the local people’s knowledge of medicines, sustainable use of the environment and their cultural practices and arts. At the moment, indigenous knowledge is often endangered to the point of extinction, despite the local people’s efforts to preserve and share their indigenous knowledge among community members. They are aware that there are various reasons for preserving their indigenous knowledge; not least the economic benefits to be obtained from sharing their indigenous knowledge with others. For example, the contribution of some characteristics of indigenous knowledge to certain fields such as eco-tourism, culture, traditional medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, and so forth. Linking up to indigenous knowledge are the specific products and services which have potential markets outside the community. Therefore it can assist the community achieve its own economic development goals. Moreover, the preservation of indigenous knowledge has also occurred in art, an assertion borne out by the creation of artistic and literary works which are based on traditional knowledge and apparently, they do not want them to be used by outsiders without their approval. In spite of all these facts, the transference of knowledge from elders to the next generation is hindered by the changes in the younger generation’s lifestyle.

Nevertheless, the increasing awareness of indigenous knowledge encounters constraints about preserving and protecting this cultural heritage. The main reason for these obstacles is that most indigenous knowledge is handed down orally from generation to generation. In order to preserve it, local communities pass their indigenous knowledge down to the next

generation adhering to the ways they have used through the centuries and they do their best to protect it from being misused by outsiders. Unquestionably, it is disappearing from many communities, often as the result of changes in the lifestyle of a community. These alterations are hindering the process of transferring knowledge from the elders to younger members of the community. Yet another obstacle is from within the community itself: elders are fearful that it will be misused or abused by people of outside their community. Another internal threat is that the elders in communities prefer and are still using vernaculars to communicate. Since the younger generation is reluctant to speak their local language; this presents the threat of the extinction of local languages. Therefore, indigenous knowledge and its utilisation could become extinct, since it has not been recorded systematically.

Moreover, Brascoupé & Mann (2001) argue that the range of commercial and scientific utilisations of indigenous knowledge has been encouraging the interest in this topic. There has been particular interest in local people’s knowledge of medicines, sustainable use of the environment and their cultural practices and arts. This has often led to situations in which indigenous knowledge has been collected and used without contacting the source of the knowledge, such as the use of traditional medicines as a basis for developing Western pharmaceutical products and herbal remedies.

Slikkerveer (1995: 513) defines that: ‘indigenous knowledge systems are specific systems of knowledge and practice, developed and accumulated over generations ... and as such unique to a specific culture or region’. This is sometimes referred to as systems of ‘local knowledge’, ‘traditional knowledge’ or even ‘common-sense knowledge’ as well. These terms are used to differentiate the knowledge produced in universities, research institutions and private industries. The indigenous knowledge of a community can define the uniqueness of that community and it can be the basis of its relationship with the world, linking the past to the future. Therefore, indigenous knowledge systems are local knowledge and are important because they are the information base of their society which facilitates communication and decision making, in sectors of the community such as human and animal health, agriculture and food production, natural resources management and fisheries (cf. Warren et al. 1999; Slikkerveer 1999).

In addition, Slikkerveer (1995) states that as a package of local expertise, indigenous knowledge combines perceptions, ideas, beliefs and practices which have been transmitted over many generations in a particular community or area. It is a knowledge which has evolved outside Western universities, research centres and laboratories and has formed a base for local decision-making processes. Initially, interest in indigenous knowledge emphasized indigenous technical knowledge of the environment. However, it is now accepted that the concept of indigenous knowledge goes farther than this limited interpretation. Indigenous knowledge is now considered to be cultural knowledge in its broadest sense, including all of the social, political, economic and spiritual aspects of a local way of life. Warren (1991) claims that it has been the basic for local level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource management and a host of other activities. Therefore, it is an important component of global knowledge.

Brascoupé & Mann (2001) indicate that indigenous knowledge systems involve many disciplines and professions including agriculture and horticulture; astronomy; forestry; human health, traditional medicines and healing; knowledge of animals, fish and ecological systems; sustainable use of natural resources and the environment; traditional classification systems for living and other resources; learning systems and oral traditions; spirituality; symbols; and traditional arts and culture. Moreover, the communication on indigenous knowledge is also expressed in local people’s artwork, design, symbols, scientific and ecological methods,

crafts, music, dance, songs, stories, foods, traditional medicines and health products. Unquestionably, indigenous knowledge is not static. In general, it continues to develop for as long as the societysurvives, remaining an important aspect of the cultural and technological base of that society. Such knowledge evolves in the local environment and is therefore adapted specifically to the requirements of local people and conditions. Consequently, it would be a mistake to think of indigenous knowledge as ‘backward’, or ‘unchanging’, since indigenous knowledge is often the result of many years’ experience and it changes continuously as people experiment to find better ways of doing things.

Therefore, indigenous knowledge is dynamic, since it is the result of a continuous process of experimentation, and adaptation. Its capacity to blend with knowledge based on science and technology should be considered complementary to scientific and technological efforts to solve problems in social and economic development.

In addition, Emery (1996) observes that the kinds of indigenous knowledge which are of particular interest are those relevant to a very wide-ranging pectrum of skills from resource management knowledge and the tools, techniques, practices and rules related to pastoralism2, agriculture, agro-forestry, water management and the gathering of wild food; classification systems of plants, animals, soils, water and weather; empirical knowledge about flora, fauna and inanimate resources and their practical uses; and the worldview or way the local group perceives its relation to the natural world. Importantly, indigenous knowledge must be viewed in terms of its overall cultural context, since it is implanted in a dynamic system in which spirituality, kinship, local politics and other factors are tied together and influence one another. It should not be forgotten that religion is an integral part of indigenous knowledge and is therefore inseparable from technical forms of knowledge. Spiritual beliefs about nature might influence the management of resources and encourage the eagerness of the people to adopt new resource management strategies (cf. IIRR 1996a).

Hassan (1992) indicates that in certain ways indigenous knowledge functions as a positive factor in development endeavours. These positive factors should be referred to when mobilising people to participate actively in development programmes. What is positive should also be more widely disseminated and be continuously reinforced. Cultural aspects tend to persevere in their existence as parts of indigenous knowledge of a community, therefore they should be taken into consideration in the policy making and planning of the country. If not, the consequence will be the possibility of miscalculating expected results or else unforeseen negative reactions as result of biased actions.