CHAPTER 5: Conclusion and Future Research Directions
5.3 Individual Level Behaviors in the Light of Population Level Patterns
From this and other research, it is clear that reef fish larvae possess behavioral abilities that could allow them to influence their dispersal. However, without understanding the ecological context in which these individual behaviors operate, it is unclear how they influence patterns of dispersal and population connectivity. In this dissertation, I demonstrate that new insights can be gained by investigating the ontogeny of larval behavior in species for which the pattern of dispersal has been empirically described,
providing an ecological context in which to consider the influence of larval behaviors. The genetics techniques used to describe patterns of dispersal are time intensive, costly and require destructive tissue sampling. Therefore, moving forward, studies should target species for which the pattern of dispersal and ontogeny of larval behavior can be described in unison. To test the hypothesized relationship between larval swimming abilities and the extent of long distance dispersal, the ontogeny of larval behavior and patterns of dispersal will need to be described for multiple species from the same location. Based on the available data, I predict that species with stronger swimming abilities will disperse over longer median and maximum distances than those with weaker swimming abilities.
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APPENDIX A
Supplement for Chapter 2
Table A.1: Conditions under which pairs of Elacatinus have been reported to bred in captivity
Species Diet Tank
volume (L) Temperature (C) Salinity (ppt) pH Ammonia (mg L-1) Nitrite (mg L-1) Nitrate (mg L-1) Photoperiod (Light:Dark) Reference
Elacatinus evelynae A, Fr, FF 100 20 - 25 30 8.2 < 0.03 < 0.03 - 13L:11D Colin, 1975;
Olivotto et al., 2005
Elacatinus figaro CF, En- A, FF
30 - 84 25.2 ± 1.7 34.9 ± 1.6 8.1 ± 01 0.05 ± 0.05 < 2 - 12L:12D, 13L:11D, 14L:10D
Côrtes and Tsuzuki, 2012; da Silva-Souza et al., 2015; Meirelles et al., 2009; Shei et al., 2012, 2010
Elacatinus genie - - 25.7 - 26.7 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus horsti - - 25.6 - 29.6 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus multifasciatus En-A, FF, Ro
9.5 - - - Wittenrich, 2007
Elacatinus oceanops En-A, Am, FF, Ro 40 - 75 24 - 27 31 8 - - - 8L:16D Colin, 1975; Feddern, 1967; Moe, 1975; Valenti, 1972; Wittenrich, 2007
Elacatinus puncticulatus En-A, FF, Ro
9.5 - 19 26 ± 0.48 33 ± 0.45 7.9 ± 0.04 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25 8L:16D Pedrazzani et al., 2014; Wittenrich et al., 2007
Elacatinus xanthiprora - - 24.1 - 25.7 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus lori CF, Fr, FF
75 27 - 28 33- 35 8.0 – 8.3 < 0.25 0 0 14L:10D Majoris et al., this study
Elacatinus colini CF, Fr, FF
75 27 - 28 33 – 35 8.0 – 8.3 < 0.25 0 0 14L:10D Majoris et al., this study
Diet: CF, Commercial diet: Fr, Frozen foods including adult brine shrimp, mysid shrimp, zooplankton; FF, Fresh foods including chopped or grated fish flesh, shrimp, squid, scallops; A, Artemia sp. metanauplii; Am, live amphipods; Ro; penaeid shrimp roe; En-, indicates that prey have been enriched.
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0
1
Table A.2: Conditions under which attempts have been made to culture Elacatinus larvae in captivity.
Species Tank volume (L) Temperature (C) Salinity (ppt) pH Ammonia (mg L-1) Nitrite (mg L-1) Nitrate (mg L-1) Photoperiod (Light:Dark) Reference
Elacatinus evelynae 20 - - - 24L:0D Colin, 1975;
Olivotto et al., 2005
Elacatinus figaro 15, 20, 25, 40, 90
23.3 – 28.0 24 - 37 7.8 ± 0.3 0.14 ± 0.06 - - 16L:8D, 14L:0D
Côrtes and Tsuzuki, 2012; da Silva-Souza et al., 2015; Meirelles et al., 2009; Shei et al., 2012, 2010
Elacatinus genie 120 24 32 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus horsti 120 24 32 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus louisae 120 24 32 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus multifasciatus - - - Wittenrich, 2007
Elacatinus oceanops 284 24 32 - - - Colin, 1975;
Feddern, 1967; Moe, 1975; Valenti, 1972; Wittenrich, 2007
Elacatinus puncticulatus 20 26 ± 0.5 33 ± 0.45 7.9 ± 0.04 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25 14L:10D Pedrazzani et al., 2014; Wittenrich et al., 2007
Elacatinus xanthiprora 120 24 32 - - - Colin, 1975
Elacatinus colini 76 27.6 – 29.2 33 - 36 8.0 – 8.3 < 0.17 0 < 0.08 14L:10D Majoris et al., this study
APPENDIX B
Supplement for Chapter 3
Figure B.1: Comparison of sustained swimming trials conducted with E. lori and E. colini larvae at Boston University (L) and at the International Zoological Expeditions field station (F) Belize. There was no difference in swimming duration among trials at the same age (Dunn’s Tests p > 0.05). Therefore, the data were pooled for all subsequent analyses.
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Figure B.2: Comparison of sustained swimming trials conducted with a single (S) larva versus trios (T) of A. percula larvae. There was no difference in swimming duration among individuals that swam alone vs. in trios at the same age (Dunn’s Tests p > 0.05). Therefore, the data were pooled for all subsequent analyses.
Figure B.3: Swimming duration (hrs) in relation to relative swimming speed (experimental flow velocity / mean critical swimming speed) across ontogenetic ages for Amphiprion percula, Elacatinus lori and Elacatinus colini. Black dashed line indicates that the experimental flow velocity is equal to the critical swimming speed. Grey dashed line indicates that the experimental flow velocity is 50% of the critical swimming speed.
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Figure B.4: Relationship between dispersal distance and early life history traits of late- stage larvae of Elacatinus lori, Amphiprion percula, and Plectropomus leopardus. Regressions were calculated using the dispersal distances reported from the fitted dispersal kernels in D’Aloia et al. 2015, Williamson et al. 2016, and Almany et al. 2017; the mean critical swimming speeds and mean body sizes reported in this study and Fisher et al. 2005; and the mean pelagic larval durations reported in Thresher et al. 1989, D’Aloia et al. 2015, and Williamson et al. 2016. Solid line – regression line; Circles – E. lori; Squares – A. percula; Triangles – P. leopardus.
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