As already indicated, inductive research essentially reverses the process found in deductive research. Here, the researcher develops hypotheses and theories with a view to explaining empirical observations of the real world. These empiri-cal observations can be based on many factors, for example, they can simply be based on personal experience. Consider your own experiences in this respect.
What have you observed best motivates you, or other people, in work organi-zations? Do you have any ideas on this? If so, you could develop your own explanations and theories about what you have observed through personal experience. Alternatively, theories might be developed to explain observed data and information, for example, the researcher might develop theories based on observed patterns of labour turnover. All sorts and types of information and data can be used to develop theories in inductive research. In fact, in the con-text of this book, when considering management research in general and consultancy-based research in management in particular, the inductive approach
can be the more appropriate approach to research compared to the deductive method just outlined. Perhaps the greatest strength of inductive research is its flexibility. This research approach does not require the establishment of a- pri-ori thepri-ories or hypotheses. On the contrary, we can build our thepri-ories based on our observations thereby allowing a problem or issue to be studied or approached in several possibly different ways with alternative explanations of what is going on. It is particularly suited to the study of human behaviour, including of course behaviour in organizations. Inductive research also enables more flexibility in research design including aspects such as sample size and type of data.
Activity 3.2. Using your own experiences in organizations, suggest a hypoth-esis or theory that might serve to explain a particular phenomenon you have noted from your experiences. In order to help you in this activity, I have included an example for you.
Phenomenon noted: Older employees in an organization seem to find it more difficult to adapt to new procedures.
Hypothesis/theory: In an organization age is a key factor affecting resistance to change.
Now select your own phenomenon and suggest a hypothesis that might explain this.
To reiterate, inductive research and investigations begin from description or observation and then move towards explanation. This approach, then, is ini-tially concerned with observations that then lead to the development of a hypothesis and theories in order to explain those particular observations. In this context, we should note that in many research projects the management researcher, and the consultant researcher in particular, might be required to investigate ideas that stem initially from the observation or more specifically the occurrence of practical and observable issues and problems. The researcher/
consultant may then be required or called in to investigate these issues and problems in order to develop theories to first explain, and then perhaps solve these issues and problems. As already stated, the inductive approach to con-ducting management research, therefore, can be particularly appropriate to management research. Indeed, we shall see when discussing some of the dif-ferent approaches to, and techniques of, management research that some of the most powerful techniques of management research and consultancy use the inductive approach. The inductive approach is also better suited to the use and interpretation of qualitative data, whereas the deductive method, with its emphasis on measurement, often requires, and can only utilize, quantitative data. Given that management research and certainly management problems can often involve both qualitative and quantitative aspects, more often than not, effective management research often requires a combination of inductive and deductive methods. We may, for example, begin a research project using induc-tive methods and approaches, by say, first observing and measuring a phe-nomenon or problem that we wish to explore. This in turn can lead us to develop theories that we can then test using the deductive methods and approach.
3.3 Nomothetic versus ideographic research
The contrast between inductive and deductive research methods has given rise to two alternative categories of research methods. Burrell and Morgan (1979) have referred to these alternatives as the ‘nomothetic’ versus ‘ideographic’
methodologies. In fact, these two methodologies are best thought of as the extremes of a continuum of research methods but as Burns (2000) points out, each of these alternatives ‘has profound implications for the way in which research is conducted’.
Nomothetic methods are most appropriate to the deductive approach to research in as much as they include the more highly structured research methodologies which can be replicated and controlled, and which focus on generating quantitative data with a view to explaining causal relationships.
Perhaps the best examples of nomothetic research methodologies are those that are based on controlled laboratory experimentation. As such, they are obviously better suited to research in the natural sciences. Ideographic research methodologies, on the other hand, are much less structured and are focused more on the explanation and understanding of phenomena with much more emphasis on qualitative data. As such, the ideographic methods are better suited to the inductive research approach and in some ways are better suited to research in the social sciences including, of course, management research.
Among the best examples of the ideographic research techniques are those of the previously referred to action research and the related research approach of ‘ethnography’, both of which are explained in more detail in later chapters.
Both nomothetic and ideographic methodologies can be used in management research, and again will often be used in combination. In addition, specific tech-niques of research within both methodologies often cut across and combine nomothetic and ideographic approaches. The characteristics of nomothetic and ideographic methods are considered in later chapters when we consider the selection and use of alternative research methodologies.
So far in this chapter we have examined the main theoretical antecedents to the process of and practice of research in general in both the physical and social sciences including some of the main alternative research methodologies. It is important for us to understand these as they serve to shape and direct con-temporary research practices including the practice of management research.
As such, we have briefly explored some of the implications of these antecedents and major methodological approaches for the process of management research.
In the final parts of this chapter, however, we need to focus more specifically on the nature and issues of management research in particular. We shall start the last part of this chapter, therefore, by discussing three main types of research in management, followed by an overview of the management research process.
Together, these will serve to set the framework for much of what follows in later chapters.
Finally, in this chapter, we consider some of the problems and issues in management research.