IB has received great attention from researchers. This can be seen by the increase in the number of research and theories being developed within the field in recent years (Fisher, Erdelez, & McKechnie, 2005; Case, 2012). However, there is no agreed global definition of IB (Case, 2012). According to Fisher et al. (2005, p. xix), IB is conceptualised as “how people need, seek, manage, give and use information in different contexts.” It is simply and narrowly defined as information-seeking activities by some researchers. In the study presented here the two most prevalent IB models are those introduced by Carol C. Kuhlthau and Tom D. Wilson.
3.3.1. Information behaviour models
3.3.1.1. Information Search Process Model (ISP)
The ISP was first introduced in 1991 by Kuhlthau (1992) and was then tested and updated based on empirical research spanning two decades. It describes the user’s experience in seeking information through three realms: the affective (feelings), such as uncertainty and confusion; the cognitive (thoughts), such as personal knowledge and information content;
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and the physical (actions). Uncertainty in the information-seeking process is considered the key point in this model (Case, 2012).
The ISP model is divided into seven stages: initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection, presentation and assessment (Kuhlthau et al., 2007) (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Model of the information search process Source: Kuhlthau et al. (2007, p. 19)
Specifically, in the first stage, Initiation, the user recognises the information needed to perform a task. At this stage, they have to face feelings of uncertainty and apprehension. In the second stage, Selection, the information seeker identifies a topic to investigate and determines the way to proceed. The feeling of uncertainty starts to decrease and a sense of optimism begins to appear. At the third stage, Exploration, information related to the topic is located and gathered to create new knowledge based on current understanding. Feelings of uncertainty increase if the user cannot find appropriate information. Formulation, the fourth stage, sees a focused perspective created based on the information gathered in the previous stage, and this stage plays a fundamental role in the information-seeking process. At the same time, feelings of uncertainty are reduced and confidence increases. In the fifth stage, Collection, the feeling of confidence increases while uncertainty lessens. The user finds needed information to support the focused perspective in this stage. By the sixth stage, Presentation, the search is completed and the findings are prepared to present. In this stage, feelings of satisfaction or disappointment appear depending on the result of the search. The seventh and final stage is Assessment, wherein the user evaluates the search
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process, reviews what has been achieved and finds out what they should do in the future (Kuhlthau, 2004; Kuhlthau et al., 2007).
It can be said that the ISP model emphasises on the constructivist approach to learning (Shannon, 2002). The constructivist approach views students as active learners; they have to make a great deal of effort to own information and create a new understanding based on their existing knowledge (Cooperstein & Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004). The model has greatly influenced the development of IL theory and practice (Hughes et al., 2007). ACRL, in the process of updating its IL model, also acknowledges the influence of Kuhlthau’s research on the role of affective elements in the search process due to the changing information environment and ambiguity in the learning environment (ACRL, 2014).
3.3.1.2. Wilson's information behaviour models
Wilson’s IB model was developed over two decades (Fisher et al., 2005; Case, 2012). The first model was introduced in 1981 (Figure 4) to indicate the factors leading to information seeking and the barriers inhibiting action (T. Wilson, 2005). It states that individuals conduct information seeking through the use of technology or acting as an intermediary to meet their physiological, cognitive and affective needs (T. Wilson, 1981).
Figure 4. Wilson’s 1981 information-seeking behaviour model Source: T. Wilson (1999, p. 252)
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The second model was built in 1996 (Figure 5) to add some new elements in order to show the stages experienced by individuals when looking for information. This model comprises an intermediate stage between identifying a need and the initiation of action, a redefining of the barriers and an activating mechanism stage (T. Wilson, 1997). The model is expressed in a cycle form and emphasises that the aim of information-seeking behaviour is satisfying the information need perceived of users through the engagement with information sources. The user may fail in finding relevant information and, as a result, they need to reiterate the information search process. Wilson’s 1996 IB model expanded his 1981 IB model through drawing upon studies from several research areas, such as decision-making, psychology, innovation, health communication and consumer research. It involves some other theoretical models of behaviour, such as stress/coping, risk/reward theory and social learning theory (which expresses the concept of ‘self-efficacy’) (T. Wilson, 1999).
Figure 5. Wilson’s 1996 information behaviour model Source: T. Wilson (1999, p. 257)
A new IB model that brings together different areas of research in the study of IB was developed in 1999 (Figure 6) (T. Wilson, 1999; Bawden, 2006). T. Wilson (1999, p. 249) states that IB is “the totality of human behaviour in relation to sources and channels of
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information, including both active and passive information seeking, and information use.” In this model, research topics and IB are characterised as a series of nested fields and the general area of investigation, respectively. Information-seeking behaviour and information- searching behaviour are considered a sub-set (T. Wilson, 1999). His final model (T. Wilson, 1999) emphasises the complexities of context for information seeking (Case, 2012).
Figure 6. A nested model of the information seeking and information searching research areas
Source: T. Wilson (1999, p. 263) 3.3.2. Summary to Section 3.3
In sum, IB and IL models use the same language to refer to the engagement with information of individuals. However, IB models put emphasis on explaining the processes involved, while IL models set up standards and draw a picture of what an information literate individual is.
IB models mention some elements that are also identified in learning theories, such as motivation, reflection, feedback, emotions, failure and repetition, in which motivation could be considered a hidden reason that affects students’ IL (Crawford & Irving, 2009). These elements are not presented in many IL models. However, reflection and emotion are presented in revised and newer IL models, because they are influenced by IB models, for example, the ACRL framework. Therefore, IB models may provide another way to explain students’ information-seeking behaviour as well as factors that affect individuals’ information engagement. At the same time, they may offer some additional features that
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can be adopted when delivering an IL programme in a specific learning and teaching context.