INFORMATION BEHAVIOUR MODELS

When compared with other LIS sub-fields, human information behaviour is the sub-field where researchers are among the highest users of theories when it comes to information studies (McKechnie, Pettigrew and Joyce 2000:57). Fisher, Erdelez and Mckechnie (2005) give 72 theories of information behaviour. Du Preez (2008:29) notes that “the models that have been developed to date by information behaviour researchers are not necessarily applicable to all user groups”. Though it is not compulsory to discuss every model in detail it is important to acknowledge the existence of key information seeking-behaviour related models in the literature. Therefore the present study identifies some of the influential information behaviour models from different groups of authors that are relevant to researchers’ information needs and information-seeking behaviour with just five models being discussed briefly. The models to be briefly discussed are Wilson (1981), Krikelas (1983), Dervin (1983), Ellis (1989) and Kuhlthau (1991).

3.3.1 Wilson, 1981

This model can be traced back to the year 1981. Wilson’s 1981 model of information-seeking behaviour is one of the most cited models (Wilson 2000). Wilson’s first set of three models was published in 1981 but a revised, general model on information-seeking

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behaviour (based on the second and third models of 1981) was published in 1996. Wilson (1981) model (in Wilson 1999:252) is based on two main propositions: firstly, that information need is not a primary need, but a secondary need that arises out of needs of a more basic kind; and secondly, that in the effort to discover information to satisfy a need, the information searcher is likely to meet with difficulties/obstructions of different kinds.

Wilson (1981:2) theorises that:

…information-seeking behaviour results from the recognition of some need, perceived by the user that may take several forms. For example, the user may make demands upon formal information systems (such as libraries, on-line services, Prestel or information centres). The systems information functions in addition to a primary, non-information (such as estate agents’ offices or car sales agencies, both of which are concerned with selling, but which may be used to obtain information on current prices, areas of 'suitable' housing, or details of cars that hold their second hand value.

The assertion above elucidates the developing information need of a person that will lead to making a demand on available information systems if there is an identifiable information need to be met. At this phase the individual exhibits varying behaviour depending on the kind and the level of prior knowledge and the skill that he/she possesses that assists in making helpful information choices.

Wilson (1981) suggests that the basic needs can be defined as physiological, cognitive or affective. Furthermore, he notes that the context of these needs is dependent on the individual, or the role demands of the person’s work or life, or the environments (political, economic, technological, etc.) within which that life or work takes place.

Wilson (1999) explains this 1981 model to be a macro model or a model of the gross information-seeking behaviour. Wilson (1999) submits that the model implies hypotheses about information context without making them explicit and that it does not indicate the processes whereby a person is affected by context, nor how context then affects his/her perception of barriers to information seeking.

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The strength of Wilson (1981) model has been brought to light by a number of researchers. Ingwersen and Järvelin (2005) depict Wilson (1981) model as one of the best theoretical models on information seeking. They reveal that the model has entrenched in it the notion of information, information need, information seeking and utilisation.

Ingwersen and Järvelin (2005) further indicate that Wilson’s 1981 model recognises many factors affecting information behaviour though it does not analyse work tasks and individual situations or contexts in detail. Ellis (1993) puts forward that Wilson’s 1981 model is remarkably applicable to the study of the needs underlying information-seeking behaviour of users. Furthermore, Ellis points out that Wilson’s 1981 model is appropriate for uncovering the facts of everyday life of the people being investigated.

Case (2006) in his criticism of Wilson 1981’s model says the model ascribes little or no importance to documentary information sources that form the largest information sources. Wilson (1999) in his assessment of his own model also says that the model does not cover a particular group of people’s information behaviour thereby limiting it to specific roles for which the information sought is applied. Prigoda and Mckenzie (2007) in their evaluation of the model indicate the fact that Wilson’s 1981 model ignores questions of sources, characteristics and personal preferences of users. They also add that the model generalise information seeking irrespective of users’ occupation or roles without analysing type and extent of information sources or the sufficiency of available information to meet the needs of information users.

The weaknesses of Wilson's 1981 model of information behaviour make it inappropriate for this study because it does not extensively cover how information can be applied and exchanged among professionals. In addition, the model ignores personal information preferences, does not consider the situation of individuals and it underestimates documentary sources. The model does not also take into consideration the success or failure of information use as a result of satisfaction or non-satisfaction with respect to job outcomes.

105 3.3.2 Krikelas, 1983

The model was developed by Krikelas in 1983 in an effort to unify the field of user studies that he described as lacking a single theoretical approach. The model was concerned about the recurring failure in library and information science to establish a distinction between use studies and user studies and the difficulties encountered in reaching a consensus on how information is defined (Fisher, Erdelez & Mckechnie 2005:225).

Ikoja-Odongo and Mostert (2006:149) explain concerning the model that the individual recognises an inadequacy in his/her knowledge which requires resolution in order to deal with the problem and this will lead the user on a search for information through various information sources (human sources, information systems or any other information resources). The process may result in either success or failure; in the case of the latter, the process can be repeated (Hayden n.d.).

The strength of Krikelas's model is seen from the perspective of it not being restricted to examining the information behaviour of one type of occupation. Spink, Foster, Prabha, Silipigni Connaway, Olszewski and Jenkins (2007) submit that the characteristics of Krikelas' 1983 model cover all areas of human information behaviour but concentrate more on immediate needs. However, Zaborowski (2008:17) criticises Krikelas’ model from the angle of the model being simple, a one-dimensional flowchart with no single part of the process encompassing the other. Other models demonstrate that information seeking is not a linear process, but one that requires information seekers to gather information, reassess and seek additional information. Additionally, Shenton and Fitzgibbons (2010) indicate that the model has been developed on the assumption that information needs relate to motivation and the information sources for users’

circumstances. However, it does not suit predictable professional job roles like that of the industrial researchers.

Considering the above-mentioned criticisms, this study will not adopt Krikelas’ model since it does not address all the study variables, research questions and has been designed to address only qualitative research approaches.

106 3.3.3 Dervin, 1983

Dervin’s sense-making theory has advanced since the year it was developed and cannot be perceived simply as an information-seeking model. Dervin (1983) states that sense-making is central to all communicating situations be it intra-personal, inter-personal, mass, cross-cultural, societal or inter-national. With respect to this centrality, the sense-making approach is seen as having wide applicability.

Dervin (1983) states that the term "sense-making" is a label for a coherent set of concepts and methods used to study how people construct sense of their worlds and, in particular, how they construct information needs and the uses for which information is put in the process of sense-making.

Dervin (1983) expounds that sense-making is carried out in terms of four constituent elements which are:

 a situation in time and space, which defines the context in which information problems arise.

 a gap, which identifies the difference between the contextual situation and the desired situation.

 an outcome, that is, the consequences of the sense-making process.

 a bridge, that is, some means of closing the gap between situation and outcome.

Wilson (1999:253) explains that the strong point of Dervin's model lies partly in its methodological consequences, since, in relation to information behaviour, it can lead to a way of questioning. Wilson (1999:253) further clarifies that this can reveal the nature of a problematic situation, the extent to which information serves to bridge the gap of uncertainty or confusion and the nature of the outcomes from the use of information.

3.3.4 Ellis, 1989

Ellis (1989:178) explains the diverse kinds of behaviour manifest in the act of information seeking in terms of features as dissent to stages. The features he pinpointed include:

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 Starting: the means employed by the user to begin seeking information (searching for information).

 Chaining: following footnotes and citations in known material or ‘forward’

chaining from known items through citation indexes.

 Browsing: semi-directed or semi-structured searching.

 Differentiating: using known differences in information sources as a way of filtering the amount of information obtained.

 Monitoring: keeping up-to-date or current awareness searching.

 Extracting: selectively identifying relevant material in an information source.

 Verifying: checking the accuracy of information.

 Ending: which may be explained as ‘tying up loose ends’ through a final search.

According to Wilson (1999:254), Ellis made no claims to the effect that the different kinds of behaviour constitute a single set of stages; he only adopted the use of the term

‘feature’ instead of ‘stage’.

Wilson (1999) identifies that the significance of Ellis’s model is enhanced by the fact that it has strong similarities with other influential models, such as that of Kuhlthau (1988, 1991 and 1993), especially in terms of the various types of activities or tasks carried out within the overall information-seeking process. Choo, Detlor and Turnbull (2000) maintain that Ellis’s model is also important because it is built on empirical research and has been applied in many subsequent studies and with various groups of users.

Conversely, Ikoja-Odongo and Mostert (2006:149-150) argue that Ellis points toward behaviours not necessarily occurring in a sequential order but it is the information seeker in terms of the unique circumstances of the information-seeking activities that will determine the pattern at that specific point in time.

This model will not be adopted in this study because Ellis’s grouping of actual information-seeking behaviour activities among scientists suggests that information retrieval systems could increase their usefulness by including features that directly support the activities mentioned in the model. Undoubtedly, most of the

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seeking behaviour features in Ellis’s model are now being supported by capabilities available in Web browsers (Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 2000).

3.3.5 Kuhlthau, 1991

Kuhlthau’s model complements that of Ellis. Kuhlthau (1991:361) explicates that the model connects to stages of the ‘information search process’ (ISP), associated feelings, thoughts and actions and the applicable information tasks. Kuhlthau (1991:366-368) characterises the six stages of Kuhlthau’s ISP model to be initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection and search closure/presentation.

Wilson (1999:255) argues that Kuhlthau’s model is more general than that of Ellis in drawing awareness to the feelings associated with the various stages and activities. In this regard, Kuhlthau acknowledges her debt to Kelly's personal construct theory (Kelly 1963) which “...describes the affective experience of individuals involved in the process of constructing meaning from the information they encounter” (Kwasnik 1991:364). The fundamental proposition is that the feelings of uncertainty associated with the need to search for information give rise to feelings of doubt, confusion and frustration and that those feelings change, as the search process proceeds and is increasingly successful (Kuhlthau 2005:231). In addition, as relevant materials are collected confidence increases and is associated with feelings of relief, satisfaction and a sense of direction (Kuhltahu 2005:231).

Shah and González‐Ibáñez (2010) affirm that Kuhlthau’s model is one of the most illustrative models of information seeking that thoroughly describes a user’s perspective.

Weiler (2005) also expresses Kuhlthau's model as acceptable across the user groups because of its inclusiveness. However, Meyer (2009) after examining Kuhlthau's model showed that there is still much debate on what factors influence information search behaviour. The model covers cognitive and affective skills of users making it to be specifically desirable for the study of young learners’ information behaviour. For example, Botha (2014) holds forth that Kuhlthau’s model focused on learning in middle childhood information behaviour. The model therefore is limited to the early educational

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environment and directed at the initial stage of information seeking that is judgmental, and does not cover professional and occupational information seekers.

This study adopts Wilson’s 1999 model of information-seeking behaviour as its theoretical framework.