Information Processing

This theory emphasizes the role of factors such as working memory capacity, organization of long-term memory, and cognitive retrieval of relevant information. Within this set of theory is artificial intelligence (AI), which is the study and development of computer programmes to solve problems. The main thrust is Newell’s four principles of (1) A few gross characteristics of the problem-solving process are invariant over the task and the problem solver, (2) the characteristics of the problem are sufficient to determine the problem space, (3) the structure of the task environment determines the possible structure of the problem space, and (4) the structure of the problem space determines the possible programs (methods) that can be used for problem solving. Hardin (2003) opined the ability to solve problems successfully depended on certain factors related to the human information-processing system and that six characteristics of expert performance have become accepted to include:

 Experts have the knowledge base required to solve a problem, and this knowledge is assembled in a way that does not tax working memory.

 Experts are faster and more accurate than novices at solving problems within their domain since they have developed automated skills applicable to the problem, and they have an organised database from which to retrieve the solution.

 Experts have superior short-and long-term memory, rather than volume.

 Experts see and represent data at a more principled level than novices.

 Experts spend more time analysing and evaluating a problem quantitatively before beginning to solve the problem.

 Experts have strong self-monitoring skills and are more aware when errors are made and when they require checking their solutions.

Tallman et al (1993) defined a problem as a situation in which there is a barrier that interferes with an actor’s attaining a desired goal and in which it is uncertain whether the barrier can be overcome. A barrier they referred to as any psychological, interpersonal,

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social, economic, or physical condition that interferes with actors’ opportunities for goal attainment, and uncertainty as the availability of courses of action entailing some risk that the desired outcome will not be attained. Aproblem(or problematic situation) is any life situation or task (present or anticipated) that demands a response for adaptive functioning but no effective response is immediately apparent or available to the person or people confronted with the situation because of the presence of one or more obstacles (D'Zurilla and Nezu, 1982). Problem solving is defined as a routine mental and/or motor activity undertaken under conditions of uncertainty and oriented toward overcoming an impediment to goal attainment by circumventing, eliminating, or removing a barrier and/or restoring previously established routes to goal attainment (Tallman et al., 1993). Generally, problem solving activities may be seen as an effort to avoid error-prone alternatives, oriented toward changing or eliminating a problematic state of affairs and it is a behavioural process involving several stages of activities. To accommodate these stages, Tallman et al (1993) further defined the problem solving process as a four-stage process involving: perceiving (awareness of) the situation as problematic; searching for and processing information relevant to selecting an effective problem-solving activity; engaging in a problem-solving activity; and evaluating the outcome of the activity. Each of these stages is considered to be precursor to the next stage and requires a decision whether to go on to the next stage or return to the previous stage or abort the process. In their view, D’zurilla et al (1982) defined problem solving as the self-directed cognitive-behavioural process by which an individual, couple, or group attempts to identify or discover effective solutions for specific problem encountered in everyday living. They opined this cognitive-behavioural process (a) makes available a variety of potentially effective solutions for a particular problem and (b) increases the probability of selecting the most effective solution from among the various alternatives. In the context of contamination, the alternatives may include providing palliative reliefs to the affected land occupiers, decontaminating the land, payment of compensation for damages suffered, restoration of the ecosystem and preventive measures against further contamination. The degree, to which each of these alternatives is pursued, will depend on each party’s definition of problem solution. A solution is a situation-specific coping response or response pattern (cognitive or behavioural) that is the product or outcome of the problem solving process when it is applied to a specific problematic situation (D’zurilla et al, 1982). An effective solution is one that achieves the problem-solving

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goal (i.e., changing the situation for the better or reducing the emotional distress that it produces), while at the same time maximizing other positive consequences and minimizing negative consequences thus this will entail restoring the affected land occupiers to as near a position as they were prior to the contamination.

An interpersonal problem is a special kind of real-life problem in which the obstacle is a conflict in the behavioural demands or expectations of two or more people in a relationship (Jacobson and Margolin, 1979 cited by D’zurilla etal, 1982). In this context, interpersonal problem solving may be described as a cognitive interpersonal process aimed at identifying or discovering a resolution to the conflict that is acceptable or satisfactory to all parties involved. Hence, according to this view, interpersonal problem solving is a “win-win” approach to resolving conflicts or disputes rather than a “win- lose” approach. In a contaminated land situation, the notion of a win-win solution is rarely feasible as the land will suffer the effect of the contamination so many years after it might have been certified to have been remediated by the polluter. For an interpersonal problem, an effective solution is one that resolves the conflict or dispute by providing an outcome that is acceptable or satisfactory to all parties involved. This outcome may involve a consensus, compromise, or negotiated agreement that accommodates the interests and well-being of all concerned parties. A practical problem solving process adopted for this research is The Problem Solving Process illustrated by Tallman et al (1993) and shown in figure 3.7 below. The problem in this illustration is the occurrence of a contaminating incident like an oil spill, which when acknowledged by the polluter (IOC), a decision will be taken whether to clean the spill or not. Where the spill is accidental, statutory requirements will demand that steps be taken to remediate the polluted site. The search for possible remediating solutions will constitute the alternative actions that will be considered and the possible alternative that may be selected. The problem solving action will be the actual cleaning and decontaminating efforts that are made to restore the site to its pre-contaminated state, while evaluation of problem solving effort will be an assessment of the decontamination efforts to ascertain their success or failure. Where decontamination has been successful, the land will revert to the owners but where it fails, then the decision will be taken whether to continue or not.

A Framework for Determining the Compensable Value of Damages due to Contamination on Wetlands Page | 129 Yes Problem Problem Acknowledged By Actor Does Actor Want to Solve the

Problem? Select an Alternative Does Actor Want to Continue? Information Search for Alternatives Evaluate Problem-Solving Effort Problem-Solving Action Exit Cope Or Ignore No Action Failure No Yes None Available Success No No Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV

Figure 3.7: The Problem Solving Process

Source: Tallman et al (1993)

3.15. Stakeholder Theory