Instruments Used to Collect Data

In order to answer the research questions as outlined in Section 3.5, this study involved the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. The Test of Science Related Attitudes (TOSRA) was used to establish a preliminary student perspective about science during the pre-TOSRA survey while the post-TOSRA reflected student attitudes after approximately 10 months of learning in a constructivist science classroom (Section 3.8.1). The Living Environment Core Curriculum for conceptual understanding and curriculum development was reviewed for photosynthesis/respiration and genetics (Section 3.8.2 and 3.8.3) and training and creation of concept maps to foster constructivist teachings was described for later use as an achievement tool (Section 3.8.4). In addition, several instruments were used to establish student understanding. The instruments included previously administered past-standardized examination items to complement the primary modes used to assess advanced student achievement and learning in the Living Environment for photosynthesis/respiration and genetics (Section 3.8.5), two-tier multiple choice diagnostic examinations in photosynthesis/respiration (Sections 3.8.6) and genetics (Section 3.8.7) were outlined to focus on student understanding and reasoning. The New York State Regents Examinations (June 2006 & June 2007) for respiration and photosynthesis and genetics questions only was used to correlate outcomes with data perceived for measuring how well student understood taught lessons (Sections 3.8.8 and 3.8.9). Student interviews were used for quantitative and qualitative assessment and feedback (Section 3.5.10).

3.8.1 Administration of TOSRA

To measure students’ attitudes toward their science class, Test of Science Related Attitude (TOSRA) was used (Fraser, 1978; Fraser, 1981). TOSRA was designed as a means to assess middle and high school science students’ attitudes towards science (Joyce & Farenga, 1999). TOSRA uses seven scales which contain ten items each. The seven subscales include Social Implications to Science (S) that for example, would measure societal changes resultant of scientific discovery and whether those discoveries have had a positive or negative effect on society; Normality of Scientists (N) may assess how society perceives scientists lifestyles, for example, would scientists use Facebook©, Twitter, or other social media and go to the movies - this subscale goals to assess how similar the testing person believes scientists are to the general population; Attitude for Scientific Inquiry (I) for example, may assess predilections toward proposing a hypothesis and following through with experimental tasks to achieve an answer; Adoption of Scientific Attitudes (A) might assess the willingness to accept empirical and experimental data in support of changing a preconceived notion about science; Enjoyment of Science Lessons (E) aims to assess the level of enjoyment when partaking in science instruction; Leisure Interest in Science (L) evaluates the likelihood of the test taker to complete a science related act outside the academic arena, for example, to go to a science museum, read a science based book, or complete a science experiment at home for fun; and finally Career Interest to Science (C) measures the participants’ plans to continue studying and working in a field/division of science after the commencement of formal education.

Student opinionated TOSRA test item responses range on a five-point Likert Scale (Likert, 1932), with the responses spanning from Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Not sure (N), Disagree (D) to Strongly Disagree (SD). The TOSRA contains both positively and negatively worded items. The positive items are scored 5-1 (SA-SD, respectively) and the negatively items are scaled 1-5 (SA-SD, respectively). The mean score comparisons of the pre and post TOSRA student responses reflect if constructivist teaching practices enhanced student interest in science over 10 months of science teaching. The scales and a sample item from each are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Scale Description and Sample Item for each TOSRA scale used

Scale Scale Description Sample Item

Social Implications to Science (S) Positive Item Money spent on science is well worth spending. 

Normality of Scientists (N) Negative Item Scientists usually like to go

to their laboratories when they have a day off.  Attitude for Scientific Inquiry (I) Positive Item I would prefer to find out

why something happens by doing an experiment than by being told. 

Adoption of Scientific Attitudes (A) Positive Item I enjoy reading about things which disagree with my previous ideas. 

Enjoyment of Science Lessons (E) Positive Item Science lessons are fun. Leisure Interest in Science (L) Positive Item I would like to belong to a

science club. 

Career Interest to Science (C) Negative Item I would dislike being a scientist after I leave school. 

The Test of Science Related Attitudes were completed in three advanced Living Environment classrooms for Year 1 (N=75) and in three advanced Living Environment classrooms for Year 2 (N=80). In all instances, students had the directions explained to them while the instructions of the survey were read aloud; students were asked to read along. The purpose of the survey was explained to the students as a means to help the teacher-researcher acquire a clearer understanding of what effects student learning; to assist in modifying teaching styles and techniques. If questions were asked about the survey, they would be answered without predilection.

TOSRA was used to enable a quantitative measure of students’ attitudes towards science prior to engaging in their teachers’ instruction and again after 10 months of teaching to compare any changes in their overall attitudes towards the class and science in general. Pre-test TOSRA was given before the initiation of learning science in this researcher’s constructivist classrooms. TOSRA’s seven scales to ascertain student attitudes towards science should exhibit differences in student

attitudes when comparing pre-test TOSRA and post-test TOSRA data in this study’s sampled student group (Year 1 and Year 2). The seven scale interventions after the initial pre-test TOSRA completion included factors to alter student attitudes about scientists, scientific inquiry, enjoyment of science, likelihood for each student to participate in science outside of the classroom and explore options about obtaining a career in a science field. For each TOSRA scale intervention procedures were employed which included but were not limited to the following: (1) Social Implications to Science (S) scale intervention included implementation of current, real-world examples that showed scientific discovery benefits for human life (i.e. the teacher researcher provided video clips that displayed techniques used to create genetically modified bacteria that produce human insulin at reduced cost and video’s which explained novel techniques of environmental technology advancements to reduce waste by using refuse for fuel while at the same time reducing costs for energy production with alternative energy sources in reading passages); (2) Normality of Scientists (N) intervention included bringing in speakers of local research facilities and showing the students scientists are of all cultural groups, races, and ages; (3) Attitude for Scientific Inquiry (I) intervention included weekly inquiry based and cooperative laboratory experiments for each topic under investigation; (4) Adoption of Scientific Attitudes (A) intervention included providing fiction and non- fiction reading assignments to exhibit how understanding science has changed over the last century through a variety of means (i.e. reading and summary of The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks, watched the movie Lorenzo’s Oil and read excerpts of the Donner Party); (5) Enjoyment of Science Lessons (E) intervention included interviews after a course of study prior to a new activity and post the new activity to identify what students perceived as the best techniques for enhancing understanding during the scientific learning process; (6) Leisure Interest in Science (L) intervention included initiating the Pet Club and Research Club as resources for students to evaluate their personal likes and dislikes about science outside of the classroom setting; and (7) Career Interest to Science (C) intervention included discussion of possible career options such as medical doctors, genetic counselors, social workers, professors/teachers of science, laboratory technicians, laboratory researchers and/or working in regulated research institutions as principal investigators for students.

Pre- and post-test administrations of the TOSRA will measure students' learning science attitude, individual science-related attitudes, their interest in science teachings, and science enjoyment in the Living Environment classroom. Students were told their responses were confidential, anonymity would prevail and scores would not be reflected in grading (semester class averages or annually) or for any other purpose outside of research practice; therefore students were encouraged to be as honest as possible when answering the items.

Study of TOSRA (pre-test)

During Year 1, the students were given the pre-TOSRA surveys within two weeks after the start of their advanced Living Environment class. During Year 2, the students were given the pre-TOSRA surveys within two weeks after the start of their advanced Living Environment class.

Study of TOSRA (post-test)

During Year 1, the post-TOSRA was given two days before the last day of classes, in the students’ classroom, approximately one week before the 2006 Living Environment Regents examination. During Year 2, the post-TOSRA was given at the end of the three-hour NYS Living Environment Regents, at the end of June in classrooms without air conditioning. The students are mandated to stay for the Regents examinations up to two hours post commencement then can leave after this period if all sections of the examinations (A,B, C, & D) are complete. The teacher- researcher asked the students to stay after this time period to complete the TOSRA survey, the students obliged. The students would not have easy accessibility to the researcher after this TOSRA administration; school was closed to the students at the completion of these examinations. All pre and post TOSRA scores are documented in Chapter 4.

3.8.2 Living environments photosynthesis/respiration curriculum

The instructional material in photosynthesis and respiration as outlined by NYS Regents of the University of the state of New York and the NYS Board of Regents

was sourced from the Living Environment Core Curriculum guide. The Living Environment Core Curriculum guide loosely details content which was assessed on the NYS Living Environment Regents with regards to photosynthesis/respiration. The information is outlined in Standard 4; Key Idea 5; including Performance Indicators with major understandings outlined in section 5.1 (NYSED, 2008; see Key Idea 5 [photosynthesis/respiration] in Appendix I). Excerpts of the teaching curriculum guide are outlined (Figure 3.1).

Standard 4; Key Idea 5 Organisms maintain a dynamic equilibrium that sustains life.

Life is dependent upon availability of an energy source and raw materials that are used in the basic enzyme- controlled biochemical processes of living organisms. Organisms are continually exposed to changes in their external and internal environments and must continually monitor and respond to these changes. The result of these responses is called homeostasis, a “dynamic equilibrium “or “steady state” which keeps the internal environment within certain limits. Failure of these control mechanisms can result in disease or even death.