Integration of tracking applications

For the sake of maximising the value of individual tracking applications, integration and coupling of more than one application is considered. This section focuses on integration of tracking applications. Integration may indicate the use of different applications doing different functions. Here are some examples of integration of tracking applications.

Electronic point of sale (EPOS) and barcodes/RFID

EPOS is‎defined‎as‎‎“a‎self‎–contained, computerised equipment that performs all tasks of a store checkout counter and allows payments by bank or credit cards, verifies transactions, provides sales report, coordinate inventory data, and perform several other services”‎ (Business dictionary, 2012). EPOS data can be integrated with data from

574 barcode or RFID readers. This facilitates tracing a product’s‎journey‎from‎the‎supplier‎ to the warehouse to the store and finally to the point of sale. Tracking data can be used to enhance internal firm and supply chain performance.

EPOS helps retail stores to trace product lines to focus on the more profitable lines, minimise inventory and enhance demand forecasting. If connected with back-office systems, EPOS allows better control over business processes especially purchasing and enhance profitability. In addition, EPOS can be linked to store website to provide instant update of stock information, therefore customers who access the website can know if the product is unavailable and might be offered an alternative. EPOS also facilitates tracing the on-line buying pattern of customers and remind them about the items they used to buy. EPOS coordinates with inventory data to ensure the availability of a minimum amount of stock. In considering supply chain benefits, EPOS helps retailers to streamline their SC processes based on up to date stock data and automatic tracking of fast-moving products for on-time replenishment. EPOS allows tracing sales and purchasing data that if a company shares them with its suppliers, informed demand forecast and plans are in place.

Electronic-seal, barcodes/RFID and GPS

Electronic-seal (e-seal), used as a proof of authenticity and integrity of physical objects, allows automated and enhanced secure supervision and protection. Barcodes and RFID as auto-ID systems can be integrated with e-seal application for enhanced track and trace practices, see photos (8 & 9). In considering high-value shipments, RFID-based e- seal ensures authenticity and traceability of custody across the whole supply chain (Chin & Wu, 2004). In addition, further supply chain visibility can be attained when GPS/cell network can be integrated with e-seals through the visibility of RTAs, trucks and trailers (Ennovasys, 2011a).

(8) RFID e-seal for cargo container (9) Barcode e-seal

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Cell phones and 2D barcodes/RFID

With respect to the integration between 2D barcodes and cell phones, the advancement in image processing and multimedia capabilities of cell phones, allows them to be used as portable barcode encoding and decoding devices (Gao et al., 2007). The printed picture by 2D barcodes system containing data, that can be photographed by a camera- phone, so that the item's information can be seen. Smart cell phones are quite often used to act as a smart URL that links the user to a particular web page (Ley, 2007). Developments in the range at which barcodes can be scanned similarly reduce the performance gap between RFID and barcodes (White et al., 2007).

In considering the integration between RFID and cell phones, the integration between location-based system for cell phones and passive RFID tags and wireless technology allows better indoor location accuracy (Potgantwar & Wadhai, 2011). This may help overcome some of the limitation of GPS (see GPS limitations section, p.170).

Smart cards and internet-based applications

One of the latest developments in smart cards technology is related integration with internet applications to support electronic commerce payment systems and on-line banking. Smart cards ensure information security (e.g. the use of digital signature in business-to-business and business-to-consumer transactions) and authenticity by verifying that the reader/card-holder is authentic before conducting a secure transaction.

Biometrics and smart cards

Biometrics can be integrated with smart card technologies through storing the unique physiological information of individuals on smart cards. Integrating biometric and smart card tracking technologies allows more advantages. Instead of searching the entire biometric database on a central computer to check the identity of individuals, which is time consuming, smart cards allow fast checking to be done at a station reader (Seymour, Baker, & Besco, 2001).

GPS with GIS, GSM/GPRS

Geographical information system (GIS) is a software offering a detailed map of a city that‎can‎allow‎topographical‎information‎of‎routes‎and‎objects’‎positions‎(Anonymous, July 2010).‎GIS‎when‎integrated‎with‎GPS,‎the‎exact‎or‎nearby‎address‎of‎the‎object’s‎ location can be determined.

576 GPS cannot communicate back the location information with satellites, so that it is integrated with global system of mobile (GSM) to be able to send this information back to the main control place. GSM is a mobile communication system that is widely used in most cell phones. Using GSM data call, electronic devices can capture and send some information to central office. GSM is essential in vehicle tracking systems. Another complementary location technology that is recently introduced as part of GSM network is called general packet radio service (GPRS). GPRS add a security dimension over the content of the transferred massages to other GPRS system (Anonymous, July 2010). GPRS does not require additional hardware but it needs advanced GSM software. With respect to GPS, GPRS is not needed for GPS tracking.

Cell phones and Location technology

A mix of location technologies are now integrated in most third generation (3G) or smart cell phones (also called smart touch phones) that reduces the cost of technology and eliminates entry barriers. Cell phones can be used a productivity tool by companies that can enhance the control and management of mobile assets and workforce. Cell phones supported by GPS technology facilitate tracking applications of mobile objects as well as workforce management system.

Mobile workforce tracking applications use a web and GPS or GPRS that are installed on cell phones. These applications offer better management and communications practices of mobile staff as well as paperless work environment. Cell phones can automatically capture transport/travel time and location data that can be monitored using a browser-enabled secure login to the web/private cloud (Ennovasys, 2011b). For example, a new job can be sent to a mobile engineer who receives the details of the job on a PDA (personal digital assistance mobile device using wireless networking and GPS). The engineer can then use GPS integrated with PDA to guide him to the location of the job; the progress of the job is monitored all the times in the central office. Thus, the use of mobile tracking application using cell phones enable effective location tracking, task allocation alerts, task confirmation, task information update, trip track and trace and time sheet management.

Video cameras and RTLS

The new generation of vision devices, e.g. charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras along with computer vision hardware are another efficient and inexpensive form of visual

577 tracking device (Smith, Richards, Brandt, & Papanikolopoulos, 1996). Vision devices can be coupled with other tracking applications providing diverse data on a relatively large areas.

CCTV system can be coupled with RTLS so that CCTV camera can be updated to the control centre room through tracking a tag signal. This enables responsiveness and overall safety and security.

Webcam and E-kanban

For the sake of maximising the advantages of visual tools such as e-kanban, the integration of suppliers and customers using these tools is sought. Industrial customers can see the kanban control boards through a webcam or a network camera positioned on the‎manufacturer’s‎facility.‎As such, both parties attain visibility and real-time access to production.