Intercultural Contact

Models of intercultural contact emanate from social psychology and relate to affect, behaviour and cognition (Zhou et al., 2008). International students need to improve their own ways of adapting to cope with any increasing stresses that come from changes in one’s life (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984); explain their transactional model of viewing stress arguing that distress comes from not being able to cope with the demands placed upon us. A primary appraisal is the evaluation of how significant the stressor is, whilst a secondary appraisal relates to how such a stressor can be controlled (Cohen, 1984). The stress and coping theory suggests the factors that impact on adjustment are determined by personality and life change as well as social support (Zhou et al., 2008). This implies that some people are better than others in finding the resources within themselves to deal with the demands placed upon them. Additionally, the context of the stress is also significant, whether it comes from an external source, or whether it comes from an accumulation of factors building up within an individual (Lazarus, 1966, 1991).

The behaviour theory (Zhou et al., 2008) is associated with behavioural adjustment and Argyle (1969) argues that people moving countries need to learn social skills that are relevant

cultural distance as well as language competence will all have an impact on adjustment. Cognition is the third model (Deaux, 1996; Phinney, 1990) which places more emphasis on cultural identity and cultural similarity between the host country and the sojourner. It has been suggested that cognition interacts with affect and behaviour (Storbeck & Clore, 2007) as thinking determines what individuals do and how they do it. This is shown in the way individuals appraise a situation to determine the stress and whether they have the resources to cope with it; they then carry out an evaluation of the best coping strategies to use (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

In terms of this study the theory most relevant to international students coming to the UK is that of affect, where students are more likely to need to find coping strategies which facilitate their stay in the host country and help them to deal with the stressors they encounter. This theory places more focus on psychological well-being (Zhou et al., 2008) and situational factors that can be used to manage stress, such as social support (Adelman, 1988). In using this model the coping strategies used by international students can be explored. Additionally, metaphors used in this study may elicit emotional responses that provide further insight into the stressors that the international students may be experiencing.

3.5.1 Making contact

It is suggested that the teaching methods that students experience in their own country tend to disregard the importance of application of theory (Abukhattala, 2013); for example, language proficiency is not simply being able to pass exams in the language, it is also being able to use the language in a natural context. This may consequently act as a barrier to intercultural contact. Therefore, instead of looking at language by itself in terms of linguistic competence, the emphasis may need to be on the communicative process (Llurda, 2000), which facilitates contact with those in the host country.

In recent decades, mobility across the globe has increased to unprecedented levels due to large-scale access to fast and affordable ways of communication (EUR-Lex, 2011); the liberalisation of many societies has allowed an exchange of populations considered improbable before. Despite the positive potential, the new situation has introduced another problem of a very particular nature. Living in a place different from home can create a stressful situation in which the individual experiences a high emotional pressure (Bhugra, 2004b). Adaptation is never easy, especially because racial, religious, and cultural prejudice is still very much in its place, creating a hard to fit template (Kirmayer et al., 2011). To add to

all that, the individual who is taken outside their usual context can experience a degradation in terms of self-confidence, ultimately seeking exclusion as a way of relief (Bhugra, 2004a).

Until recently, the problem of analysing the emotional response generated by the move between cultures has been under-explored. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that the problem is a chronic one and deserves extended attention. The concept of culture shock has been brought into the field of psychology and explored in a more methodic way, as discussed earlier. Going even further, institutions which rely on a high influx of people coming from different cultures have developed methodologies of assessment, as well as customised services which facilitate guidance. Consequently, the emotional response of migrants is now better understood and accepted as something more than an isolated phenomenon. As multiculturalism has become an important force shaping our world, the problems which come attached to it can no longer be ignored or treated in a superficial and improvised way. It makes people more aware that extra efforts may be required for making meaningful contact between different cultures.

Intercultural contact has taken a complex array of forms in our modern society. From the simple tourist who is facing a new environment for just a couple of days, to the international student or worker who will be indefinitely relocated for a wide range of time, all of them face different magnitudes of the same problem. This research is focused on international students coming to the United Kingdom for short to medium intervals of time, but the issues are universal to all migrants.

International students who fail to adapt are both a social and an economical problem for their hosting countries (British Council, 2014). As many of these students access a form of education which is tax based, they create a certain degree of dependency for the education providers. Integration in the local culture and in the education system are now treated by university administrators as a matter of customer service and customer satisfaction (Lillyman & Bennett, 2014). Current students are also perceived as future professionals in countries which benefit from the “brain drain” and also in their own countries (Gribble, 2008; Kelly, 2010; Luxon & Peelo, 2009). A student who fails to produce a good academic display due to cross-cultural maladjustment will most likely feel out of place when facing job placement (Ward et al., 2005). In addition, they may not feel any emotional attachment to the country of their studies and this could be a real loss to both the trading and political connections between

the student’s homeland as well as the host society in the future. The importance of addressing the key aspects of integration as soon as possible benefits everyone.

3.5.2 Relationships

Researchers have revealed that foreign students have an inclination “to belong to three distinct social networks, each serving a particular psychological function” (Ward et al., 2005, p. 147). The first circle of acquaintances is an obvious one, as it includes fellow compatriots who happen to be enrolled in the same institution, or in another educational institution from the same city. The main function is to “rehearse, express, and affirm culture-of-origin values” (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001, p. 147). The second circle includes colleagues, teachers, counselors, and members of the university staff, in a relationship which is more formal. In the third category we can see in a more obvious way that the lack of integration is able to create a sense of solidarity between foreign students, even those which belong to different nationalities. As a general observation, “[a]lthough International students generally want and need intercultural contact, the ability and willingness to interact meaningfully with host culture peers are largely dependent upon cultural distance” (Ward et al., 2005, p. 148). The described social networks are used in completely different ways, thus justifying the fact that the emotional response is usually activity dependent. Locals are preferred when information of a practical nature is needed, while co-nationals or other foreigners are sought out as companions or for providing emotional support (Boylan, 2002). The degree of integration and academic success is usually directly proportional with the number of successful contacts established with the local hosts (Hwang, Wang, & Sodanine, 2011). The emotional response is also encouraged in a positive direction if more meaningful connections with the representatives of the local culture are established (Owen & Loomes, 2010). Compatriots can be seen as a refuge against what is unknown, of a foreign nature, or intrusive in the area of personal comfort. The social support hypothesis puts a bigger accent on the quality of the support received through the social networks, rather than on its quantity component (Nahid & Sarkis, 1994; Holahan, Valentiner, Moos, 1995). Nevertheless, both components enhance the ability to generate an appropriate emotional response when facing the challenges of a new culture.

3.5.3 Emotional responses

The broad range of problematic emotional responses can be separated into two main categories: conflicts with others and conflicts with the self, according to Zaharna (1989). The contact with others can turn out to be problematic when a sense of continuous mirroring and comparison is being felt; the individual introduced into the new culture feels inferior and hopeless because they are not able to compete on equal terms with what the education system considers to be their peers (Wu et al., 2015). Although the individual might achieve success, that success is often overshadowed by the significant effort invested; this was found to be especially so in the case of Chinese international students (Li, Chen, & Duanmu, 2010). To put it in other words, the competition nurtured by the academic program acts as a constant reminder that at least for a short period of time, the incomer can find themselves at a considerable disadvantage in society.

New evocative situations generate an unfolding of the self never experienced before, which brings on new directions of self-discovery (Phelps, 2014). Identity confusion may be considered to be a main feature of culture shock, as the traditions associated with cultural identity start to unfold and shifts in perspective and behaviour occur (Erickson, 2014). As the new elements of the environment are assimilated through an often difficult and painful process, the question revolves around what will happen with the self once the process draws to some of its conclusions; there is the dilemma that the changes may strip away some of the older existing layers, or that everything will be piled on top. As Phelps argues, the international students are not in the host country simply to gain expertise and a qualification; they are undergoing a transformative experience, with all the challenges associated with that.

Much of the negative tilt of the emotional response related to contact between foreign students and their host culture is given by the fact that the rediscovery of the self puts in danger the only remaining connection with the past and with the initial culture. Alternatively, many international students adopt a dual identity which encompasses more than one cultural and national identity (Vertovec, 2009). However, avoiding the emphasis only on the disadvantages of the emotional impact of migrating to a completely different culture, it is important to point out that a new identity and genuine personal change can be a significant gain; it results in identity transformation that can enhance the competence and perspectives of individuals (Gu & Schweisfurth, 2015). This is especially relevant to religious identity; the study by Erickson showed that Muslim students in the United States experienced a growth in

their religious engagement; they found that having the freedom to practise in the way that best suited them, they were freed from the restrictions placed upon them by cultural conditioning, and consequently their relationship with Islam grew stronger.

3.5.4 Emotional stability

It is widely recognised that there is a direct relationship between effective learning and the attainment of peace of mind and emotional stability. According to Abarbanel (2009), calmness and measured breathing allows the focus to be on the integration of information. She uses the term ‘emotional support’ to describe what some people manage to craft from their emotional potential. Exposure to various forms of stimuli creates and emotional resilience, which in turn gives the ability to address key barriers of a new surroundings. The author proposes a replacement of the term ‘cultural shock’ with ‘cultural shift’, pointing out that the word ‘shock’describes a passive attitude in the face of adversity. Abarbanel (2009, p. 1) states that “disengaging from emotional overload to quiet the mind will contribute to improved focus”. It is therefore important for international students to remain as calm as possible when confronted with potential stressors, and to choose the best way for them to cope with such stressors. From this point of view, the key to a successful inter-cultural experience resides in the unexplored potential of the individual. Through increased self- awareness, as well as by learning new techniques of relaxation, the individual put in the face of adversity can develop a very effective and long-lasting emotional immunity.

Almost all studies agree that students lack, at least in the initial phase, a plan for learning more about the culture or a way in which they can develop intercultural communication skills (Cohen & Paige, 2005). Thus, the whole experience of living and studying abroad might be compromised if this is not addressed as soon as possible. It is encouraging to know that almost all education institutions which host foreign students, both in the U.K., and elsewhere in the world, have dedicated important resources in developing multiple methodologies for adapting teaching to cultural backgrounds (Bar-Yam, Rhoades, Sweeney, Kaput, & Bar-Yam, 2002). Such ventures may go some way to helping international students feel more comfortable in their new surroundings and to achieving the emotional stability they need to ensure they gain from their international experience.

3.6 Socio-Cultural Adaptation

In adapting to a new host country migrants are expected to assimilate into the new society. Whether the expatriate has entered the new society for work or academic purposes, they need to successfully integrate themselves into the new society. A negative correlation has been obtained between acculturative stress and adaptation (Mamood, 2014). Conversely, it has been shown that increased competency across adaptation subscales leads to decreased levels of stress among students and higher level of college satisfaction (Zhao, 2010). The core competencies that have been studied that show a strong correlation to one’s ability to adapt to a new country are academic performance, interactive and developing communication skills, personal interests and transparency of sharing or being part of a community, ecological adaptation, and more importantly the inclusion of language proficiency (Mahmood, 2014). These factors influence one’s levels of stress and success individually, as well as work together to form a coherent rubric of factors needed to succeed at fully adapting to a new society.

3.6.1 Academic Performance

A metric to successfully gauge how migrants adjust to their new surroundings includes how well they adapt to performance-based areas such as their academic studies. Cultural changes in education can make adjusting to a new setting more difficult. In Asian classrooms the teaching is more teacher-centric and when the Asian students are put into a western classroom, they may feel they are in an alien environment as there is much more interaction with the students, and consequently they may feel isolated from their peers (Zhao, 2010). As a result many international students tend to experience depression, which Zhao states leads to a lack of concentration and a low level of motivation to be effectively involved in their studies or socialising; these symptoms lead to poor performance and, if the student does not adjust to their host country, they may quit altogether.

Adjusting to the host country is crucial for success in performance-based areas of adaptation. If an international student cannot communicate successfully with peers or professors or learn to comfortably interact socially, they will fail, as Zhao indicates. Wilson (2013) studied behaviour with the Subjective Adjustment Scale (SAS) and found a medium-sized correlation between Academic/Work Performance and SAS Work Adjustments, providing support that behavioural skill acquisition and adaptation occurs within a contextual performance environment. He also found a strong connection between behaviour and performance in a

new country. This shows the importance of adaptation in academic performance and achievement, and this is why an understanding of the experiences of international students is essential, so that best efforts can be made to ensure their adaptation is as seamless as possible.

3.6.2 Interpersonal Communication

It has been thought that adaptation to a new country is more of a social process than merely a psychological process. Variables such as identity as well as social cognition have provided better frameworks for the study of socio-cultural adaption than studies only focusing on psychological adaption factors (Mamood, 2014). According to him individuals who developed skills that allowed better interpersonal and intergroup relations, such as cultural knowledge, social skills, and language abilities adapted better.

A direct correlation was found between students who struggled with language barriers and their abilities to form relationships with their peers. Those who are only in the country temporarily, usually for academic purposes, do not place a strong desire to learn the language or develop lasting relationships, Mamood (2014) found. However, he also found that language competency is an important factor in achieving interpersonal relationships and, if a migrant wants to develop these relationships, they must become familiar with the language or languages spoken.

3.6.3 Personal Interests and Community Involvement

Several behavioural adjustments need to be made by migrants in order to successfully adapt to a host country, many of which stem from their own interests as well as interests in the community. A correlation is drawn between how well one adjusts to a new environment and how well a migrant understands the new society they are exposed to. Long-term psychological adjustments are related to socio-cultural adaptations (Zhao, 2010); he suggests these adjustments include the migrant’s development of intergroup relations, interpersonal, social skills, family and community relations, as well as personal interests such as their self- esteem, identity consolidation, wellbeing, and satisfaction tied into cultural knowledge. In order to achieve long-term benefits of adaptation with regards to personal and community interests a migrant needs to become interested in participating in the community. Use of the SCAS-R scale shows a strong correlation between maintaining one’s personal interests and becoming involved with the host society (Wilson, 2013). However, community involvement is dependent on linguistic and communication skills as a lack of confidence or competency

often leads to misunderstandings or acts as a barrier to fully integrating oneself into the host country’s society, according to Wilson. He argues that participating in familiar ethnic communities provides a migrant with better psychological well-being and cross-cultural outcomes and can lead to a broader involvement with the community of the host country.

Research has shown that migrant students face discrimination more than domestic students (Mamood, 2014). Facing discrimination would discourage the desire to assimilate into a new society and may explain why it is preferred, at least at first, for migrants to seek out communities comprised of their own ethnicities. Mamood (2014) results show an intolerance which occurred both inside as well as occurring anywhere else outside the learning environment and it also ran from being ignored and excluded to facing verbal insults and confrontations making adaptation harder and lead to psychological distress.

3.6.4 Ecological Adaptation

Behavioural adaptation has been shown to have a weaker correlation to ecological factors than other socio-cultural adaptation factors. Brofenbrenner (1994) outlined four core