Internet-Assisted Language Learning Research

In this sub-section, I review some of the research findings that report on the effectiveness of using the internet for language learning. I am going to use italics to highlight particularly important points arising in the literature review. The studies that will be reviewed use different internet applications for different pedagogical purposes in different contexts. The aim is to illustrate how the internet is a viable and a flexible option for language teachers and learners as it could be exploited in so many different ways and for so many different purposes.

The volume of IALL research has been growing at a fast rate. The majority of this research investigates the effectiveness of using different internet applications for empowering different aspects of language learning. IALL research shows that the internet both as a source of content and as a medium of communication provides opportunities for foreign language learners to practise specific areas such as the four skills, vocabulary and grammar (e.g. Stepp-Greany, 2002; Lee, 2007; Arnold, 2009; Ho, 2009; Yamada, 2009; Jarvis and Szymczyk, 2010), promote their interaction (e.g. Jeon-Ellis et al., 2005; Schrooten, 2006), empower their sense of autonomy (e.g. Yumuk, 2002; Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010), increase their motivation for language learning (e.g., Kramarski and Feldman, 2000; Son, 2008; Chang, 2010; Vinther, 2010), and also raise their awareness and understanding of the target culture (e.g. Lee, 1998). Some studies focus on teachers‘ and learners‘ perceptions of the effectiveness of using the internet (e.g., Yang, 2001; Puteh et al., 2002; Yang and Chen, 2006; Shin and Son, 2007).

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To start with the skills, reading and writing have been the focus of a number of IALL studies. Ho (2009), for example, in an action research study, examined the usefulness of a blog project in developing students‘ reading and writing skills in Vietnamese as a foreign language. The positive impact of the project on both reading and writing was evident in 'the students' feedback on the project; and the teacher's reflections on the advantages and challenges of this project' (2009: 268). With a particular focus on reading, Arnold (2009) evaluated an online extensive reading programme in German as a foreign language. The programme which was designed for advanced learners differed from traditional extensive reading programmes in two aspects: students read online instead of printed materials, and there was no teacher pre-selection of the materials. The study reported that learners 'developed into skilled second language readers, making conscious decisions about reading strategy and dictionary use' (2009: 340). In these two studies, students’ had a central role to play. They were actively involved as they evaluated the project in Ho‘s study (2009) and learners chose their online reading materials in Arnold‘s study (2009). Also, the internet tools used aligned with the object of learning; i.e., blogs for developing writing and reading as they allow ‗easy access to written and audiovisual Web content‘ (Miceli, 2010: 322); an online extensive reading programme for developing reading skills. The positive results could, therefore, be related to the pedagogical appropriateness of the internet tools.

Listening and speaking have also been researched within IALL. Stepp-Greany (2002), for example, allowed her students to contact electronic pen pals and investigated the impact of this strategy on her students‘ perceptions of language

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learning. She reported that contacting electronic pen pals could enhance students' speaking and listening skills. More recently, with the advance of video-conferencing tools, Lee (2007) investigated fostering second language listening and speaking skills through interaction in desktop videoconferencing. The study was conducted in ideal internet conditions as no practical problems with the internet were reported. A classroom project of one-to-one desktop videoconferencing was used and data were gathered from 'video-recording samples, reflections, and oral interviews to report the participants' experiences' (2007: 635). The results indicated the effective use of videoconferencing in fostering L2 speaking and listening skills.

Promoting interaction is another claim within IALL research. In a study that investigated the oral interaction between learners while working collaboratively to complete web pages, Jeon-Ellis et al. (2005) claimed that this context could ‗provide students with opportunities for collaborative dialogues, through which language learning occurs‘ (2005: 121). However, the social context of these interactions was influenced and ‗mediated by personal relationships, preferences, and motivations‘ (ibid.). Similarly, Schrooten (2006) reported that learners' interaction while performing tasks in front of the computer screen depended on the learners' personalities as well as task design. He made the point that when the task design appealed to students' own experiences, more interaction was provoked. Thus, taking into consideration learners’ preferences, personalities and experiences is essential if the internet is to be effective.

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Lexical development has also been investigated in IALL environments. In a study of L2 vocabulary development, Lee (1998) reported that having access to online materials helped participant students acquire current lexical items of the target language. As a source of up-to-date content, the internet has a great potential for foreign language learners who may not find as up-to-date materials in their coursebooks (Conacher and Royall, 1998).

As for Grammar, Jarvis and Szymczyk (2010) examined students' attitudes to learning grammar with web-based and book-based materials. The data suggested that 'despite the well-documented advantages of the tutorial role of computers … participants generally preferred working with paper-based materials' (2010: 32). These findings actually highlighted the need to consider learners’ perceptions and attitudes as decisive factors when evaluating the effectiveness of internet applications for language learning. Learners‘ perceptions were also taken into

consideration in Yamada‘s study (2009). He used synchronous computer-mediated communication to investigate the effectiveness of both text chat and audio- conferencing tools in promoting learners‘ confidence in grammatical accuracy. The results indicated that 'a text-mediated system enhances confidence in grammatical accuracy' (2009: 820), whereas 'voice communication has a negative effect on confidence in grammatical accuracy' (ibid.). Yamada‘s study was also conducted in ideal internet conditions as no practical problems with the internet were reported.

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The need to consider learners’ and teachers’ perceptions has been widely recognised in IALL research (e.g., Yang, 2001; Puteh et al., 2002; Yang and Chen, 2006; Shin and Son, 2007). With regard to teachers‘ perceptions, Puteh et al. (2002) investigated the perceptions of fifteen 'Malaysian English language teachers of higher institutions on the use of Internet in language teaching and learning, particularly in English as a Second or Foreign Language' (2002: 40). Results showed that most of the teachers 'used the Internet in their language classes, allowed their students to communicate with them via E-mail, received the students' assignments via the technology and they also believed that the Internet is a valuable teaching tool in their language teaching' (ibid.). In a different context, Shin and Son (2007) examined Korean secondary school EFL teachers' perceptions on the use of the Internet for teaching purposes. In their study, ‗a total of 101 teachers participated in a survey and responded to the questions of how they think about IALT, how they use the Internet, and what types of resources they use on the Internet' (2007: 1). The findings suggested that 'there are three key factors affecting the use of the Internet in the classroom: teachers' personal interest in Internet use; teachers' abilities to integrate Internet resources into classroom activities; and computer facilities and technical support in schools'. In other words, teachers‘ attitudes towards and experiences in using the internet are as important as the availability of sources for effective internet integration.

Regarding learners‘ perceptions, Yang (2001) integrated Web resources and examined 'learners' subjective responses to the use of the World Wide Web within the context of a research project on American states' (2001: 155). Learners 'found the

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experience generally positive. Negative responses were found to relate to technical problems and information overload' (ibid.). In a further study, Yang and Chen (2006) explored participants' views of the use of some internet tools in language learning activities in Taiwan. The students 'participated in six Internet-based teaching activities; group e-mailing, a Web-based course, an e-mail writing programme, English homepage design, video-conferencing and chat room discussion' (2006: 860). The learners reported that they ‗experienced the pleasure of learning‘ (ibid.). Taking teachers‘ and learners‘ perceptions into account is an essential factor for effective internet integration.

Target cultural knowledge and intercultural communication have also been researched within IALL. For example, Lee (1998) investigated acquiring cultural knowledge via on-line newspapers and intercultural exchanges via online classrooms. In Lee‘s study, students were not only able to explore target cultural resources using browsers such as Internet Explorer but also were able to 'interact with native speakers via on-line communication such as E-Mail exchanges, newsgroups, and chatrooms' (1998: 101). The results indicated that these tools, both the non-interactive and the interactive, created opportunities for students to acquire knowledge about the target culture. Knowledge of the target culture is very important in the L2 classrooms especially when dealing with target-culture-specific activities.

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In addition to cultural knowledge, autonomy has widely been researched within IALL. In a study on the internet‘s role in promoting a more autonomous view of learning, Yumuk (2002) investigated how an internet information search based programme in a translation course can encourage learners who had a traditional view of learning to take more responsibility for their own learning. The programme was implemented to 'encourage students to use the internet in order to select, analyse, evaluate and apply relevant information to enhance the accuracy of their translations' (2002: 141). The search and application of the internet-based information aimed to encourage students to think and reflect critically on their learning, so that they could question their teacher-dependent learning habits. The results were that the programme promoted a change in their view of learning towards more autonomy. After applying internet-based information searches to their written translation tasks, 'the majority of students accepted that the translation process required more personal responsibility from the learner, and furthermore, they viewed learning more meaningfully' (ibid.). In a more recent study on learners‘ autonomy within IALL, Bhattacharya and Chauhan (2010) investigated the impact of a blogging programme on autonomy. As a part of the curriculum, 'students were asked to create their own blogs' (2010: 376). The results indicated that students became more autonomous 'since they had to create and edit their own blogs to make them attractive enough for others to visit' (ibid.). Whether used as a source of content or as a medium of communication, the internet requires learners to be in control. That is why learners‘ autonomy is most likely to increase in most IALL environments. The same applies to motivation which is usually reported even in IALL studies that have different focuses.

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Many IALL research studies reported increased learners’ motivation (e.g., Kramarski and Feldman, 2000; Son, 2008; Arnold, 2009; Yamada, 2009; Chang, 2010; Vinther, 2010). In their study, Kramarski and Feldman (2000) investigated the impact of an internet environment on students‘ reading comprehension, motivation and metacognitive awareness. The results indicated that 'the internet environment contributes significantly to the motivation of the students towards the study of English as a foreign language' (2000: 149). Son (2008), in a study on using Web- based Language Learning (WBLL) activities, also reported that participants in WBLL sessions 'showed positive attitudes toward WBLL and expressed the view that they would like to use more Web activities during and outside class time' (2008: 34). In his study, Arnold (2009) investigated the effectiveness of online extensive reading for advanced foreign language learners. He reported 'learners‘ growing motivation and self-confidence' (2009: 340). More recent studies also investigated motivation within IALL environments. For example, Chang (2010) designed an e- learning course to provide learners with a non-threatening environment in which 'they are encouraged to collaborate with other students and with the lecturer on content-based online language learning activities' (2010: 54). The aim was to observe what affected individual students' motivations and attitudes toward learning English and how they changed as the course progressed. It was found out that 'learners' motivation improved and their attitude toward learning English became more positive as the course progressed' (ibid.). Also, Vinther (2010) investigated whether social connection between students via emails would enhance their motivation in language learning. The results indicated that using email exchanges

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allowed students ‗full autonomy in their interaction as a motivational factor to advance language awareness‘ (2010: 169). The claim that allowing students full autonomy could work as a motivational factor could be best explained within the area of learners‘ engagement. Dörnyei and Ushioda claim that ‗a key argument in linking autonomy and motivation is that both are centrally concerned with the learner‘s active engagement with and involvement in the learning process‘ (2010: 58). Although learners‘ engagement is perceived to be embedded in the motivation literature, few research studies have addressed this area separately within IALL research. Being one of the main areas of interest in this research, learners‘ engagement in IALL will be discussed in detail later in this chapter (see 3.5.).

In this sub-section, I reviewed some of the research studies that investigated using the internet in language learning settings. The review aimed at illustrating how the internet is a viable and a flexible option for language teachers and learners as it could be exploited in so many different ways and for so many different purposes. In the next section, I focus on the internet‘s role as a source of materials (as was used in this research) and discuss issues related to its integration in language learning contexts.