Interpretation of results obtained from the re-specified path model

The present study sought to test a model where parental responsiveness, parental demandingness and TEI, interactively and individually, relate to adjustment. Here, in this sub- section, a discussion is conducted on results obtained from the path model. The analysis of the fit indices in the present study revealed that the re-specified model showed a good overall fit with the empirical data, with χ2 (1) = 1.725, p > .189, NFI = .996, CFI = .998, RMSEA = .04, whereas the base line model displayed rather inadequate data fits, with χ2 (0) = .000, *p< .000, NFI = 1.00, CFI=1.00, RMSEA=.414. This implies that the re-specified model was significantly different from the baseline model. Thus, the re-specified model included both direct and indirect paths from the independent variables (except the dropping of a direct path from parental demandingness to TEI) to adjustment.

Below, the results derived from the re-specified model (path model 4.2) along with previous findings are noted:

 Parental responsiveness had a direct, positive statistically significant effect on TEI (standardized, β = .411, *p <.05). This implies that first year university students who perceive their maternal and paternal figures as loving, responsive, involved, warm, accepting and close, as measured using the parental responsiveness sub-scale, were found to have significantly higher self-perceptions of their emotional abilities, skills, and personality characteristics.

The finding that TEI is influenced by parental responsiveness in the present study is consistent with the previous suggestions and results; for instance, children, who reported that their parents modelled, encouraged, facilitated and rewarded emotionally intelligent related behaviour, enjoyed higher degrees of EI (Martinez-Pons, 1999). Alegre (2011) also reported that parental responsiveness, parental emotion-related coaching, and parental positive demandingness are related to children’s higher EI whereas parental negative demandingness is

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related to children’s lower EI. In line with the present research findings, Liau et al. (2003) discovered that parental monitoring and supervision are related to children’s TEI, parental availability and control were also related to late adolescents’ TEI (Alegre & Benson, 2010).

 In so far as parental responsiveness had a direct, positive statistically significant direct (β= .196, *p<.05) and indirect (β=.176, *p<.05) effect on adjustment, implies that first year university students who perceive their maternal and paternal figures as loving, responsive, involved, warm, accepting and close, as measured using the parental responsiveness sub-scale, were found to cope successfully with environmental demands and pressures inherent at university.

The present finding concurs with the previous finding that positive/supportive parenting, characterised by high levels of warmth, democratic discipline and involvement /supervision, has been reported to be associated with lower levels of adjustment problems in Chinese American youth (Kim & Ge, 2000), positive adjustment to college (Schnuck & Handal, 2011), and socially competent behaviour (Baumrind, 1991; Lamborn et al., 1991). Moreover, Beyers and Goossens (2003) indicated that regardless of students’ grade, gender, or perceived parenting style, high levels of independence from parents predicted higher levels of adjustment to university. Similarly, if college students had a high level of independence from parents this could result in a feeling of mutual reciprocity between the parent and a child (Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). The findings of the present study are in line with expectations: it seems that mothers and fathers play important roles in promoting the adjustment of their children (Maggio & Zappulla, 2014).

 Parental demandingness had a statistically significant direct effect on adjustment (β= .055, *p <.05). This implies that first year university students who perceive their maternal and paternal figures as strict, demanding, monitoring and firm controlling, as measured using the parental demandingness sub-scale, were found to be coping successfully with environmental demands and pressures inherent at university.

In agreement with the present result, a study by Maggio and Zappulla (2014) showed that parental strictness/supervision plays the most protective role for boys’ adjustment. In the study both fathers and mothers promote this adjustment by monitoring and controlling their children rather than by providing affection and emotional support. This result suggests the importance

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of focusing particular attention on the dimension of parental strictness/supervision and on its relationship with adolescents’ adjustment.

 TEI had a significant and positive direct effect on adjustment (β = .44, *p < .05). That is, first year students who reported that they have positive self-perceptions about their emotional abilities, skills, and personality characteristics which influence their ability to cope successfully with environmental demands and pressures were found to have significantly better adjustment experiences at their university.

The present finding that TEI has a direct and indirect effect on adjustment is somewhat consistent with the previous result that a review of literature pertaining to EI shows that, EI skills are strong predictors of a student's adjustment to college (Elias et al., 2007; Parker et al., 2006). Considering the importance of EI to adjustment, individuals who have the capacity to decode, understand, and regulate emotions, interact with other people, and manage relationships had a better social and academic adjustment (Goleman, 1998; Low & Nelson, 2005; Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

Again in line with the present results, TEI was related with a host of criteria relating to individuals’ social, emotional, and behavioural well-being (Greven et al., 2008; Mikolajczak et al., 2006). For example, in a study by Poulou (2010) on the relationship between TEI and students’ emotional and behavioural strengths and difficulties, it was reported that the emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions included in TEI inventory predicted adolescents’ emotional and behavioural strengths and difficulties.

Consonant with the present result, TEI is important for university adjustment primarily because emotional self-efficacy is an important aspect of that construct (Petrides et al., 2007), which would influence how students persevere in the face of academic difficulties and how resilient they are to academic stressors. TEI also impacts successful social adjustment at university (Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004), and aid adjustment (Christie et al., 2004). Most importantly, TEI is correlated with social competency (Mavroveli et al., 2007), and measures of social adjustment in older adolescents and adults (Chapman & Hayslip, 2005; Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004).

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Concurring with the present result, EI plays a role to help students to maintain the adjustment successfully during their university transition (Low & Nelson, 2005). The implication of this portion of the finding is that, therefore, students require an early EI programme in order to adjust their transition (Austin et al., 2005).

Generally, using the re-specified path model and inferring from previous findings, it can be deduced that adjustment is a function of parental responsiveness, parental demandingness, and