Interrelationship between Objective and Subjective Career Success

Various possibilities seem to exist regarding the interrelationship between objective and subjective career success. Several authors (Judge et al., 1995; Ng et al., 2005) stress that objective career success could be the foundation of subjective success.

Similarly, Nicholson and De Waal-Andrews (2005) view subjective career success as a by-product of objective career success. Gattiker and Larwood (1998) support the notion that objective success influences subjective success and revealed in their studies that income and promotions predict job and career attitudes. A study by Wayne et al. (1999) found that income, status, and promotions predict career satisfaction. Raabe, Frese and Behr (2007) found that income predicts changes in career satisfaction in 12 month time intervals and (Schneer & Reitman, 1997) in a 6 year period. In addition, a study by Turban and Dougherty (1994) found that income and promotions are associated with perceived career success, which included other-referent comparison judgments. In a similar vein, Kirchmeyer (1995) reported positive correlations of income and status with other-referent subjective success.

Boehm and Lyubomirsky (2008) reported that subjective experiences of career success lead to more objective success. The latter authors claim that when an individual experiences subjective career success it may lead to a sense of greater self-confidence, which may enhance their motivation and could lead to more objective success.

In contrast, Hughes (1937), Arthur and Rousseau (1996), and Van Maanen (1977) maintain that objective and subjective career success are interdependent. Hall (2002) agrees with the afore-mentioned authors, and proposes a cyclical model, in which career success bolsters an individual’s level of self-esteem, and increases the level of involvement in the particular area of career work. This then in turn impacts objective career success positively, which creates a success cycle linking objective and subjective career success outcomes. Arthur et al. (2005), and Hall and Chandler (2005) suggest an alternative “interdependent perspective” that when people experience objective reality, they create understandings and evaluations about career success. These individuals then act on these understandings and evaluations. In addition, these authors claim that certain outcomes are attained based on their actions, which then lead to modified evaluations and behaviours.

The current study takes cognisance of Arthur et al’s. (2005, p. 197) call to researchers with respect to “how career success unfolds in a dynamic and uncertain world”…

appealing for research designs with adequate measures of both objective and subjective success, including designs which can highlight “the two-way, time-dependent interaction between the two sides of career success”.

It is thus important to include both objective and subjective components of career success in the current study, given that career success can be measured in terms of both extrinsic (tangible) and intrinsic (affective and less tangible) measures (Allen, Eby, Poteel, Lentz, & Lima, 2004; Greenhaus et al., 1990; Ng et al., 2005); Turban &

Dougherty, 1994).

In terms of attribution theory (Johns, 1999), people have the tendency to attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external factors. Therefore, one’s objective career success is likely to engender positive self-perceptions, which in turn could lead to greater satisfaction with one’s career (Johns, 1999). Moreover, according to social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), people have the tendency to compare themselves with others. Because wealth and social standing are valued in society, tangible career achievements may lead to feelings of greater career

satisfaction (Ng et al., 2005). Hence, objective career success could be the basis for the subjective evaluation of success (Abele & Spurk, 2009).

A study by Seibert et al. (2001) found significant positive correlations between career satisfaction (a dimension of subjective career success) and the following elements of objective career success: namely, salary progression (r= .18) and promotions (r= .15).

Another study by Valcour and Ladge (2008) reported a significant correlation (r= .26) between income (indicator of objective career success) and subjective career success.

Abele and Spurk (2009) found a significant correlation (r= .16) between self-referent subjective career success and objective success. Finally, Tharmaseelan, Inkson and Carr (2010) found a significant positive correlation (r= .56) between objective career success and subjective career success.

These studies are all in agreement that a relationship exists between objective career success (current) and subjective career success. Complemented by theory, these studies provide empirical support for the anticipated relationship between objective career success (current) and subjective career success. On this basis, one may anticipate that in a conceptual model, subjective career success may theoretically be regarded as a result of objective career success.

Therefore the following proposition is proposed:

Proposition 11: Objective career success (current) is positively related to subjective career success.

Moreover, the role that past objective success plays in an individual’s current subjective experience of their career seems to be generally ignored in literature.

When careers are viewed as a journey of transitions over one’s working life (Hall, 1976, 1996; Sullivan, 1999; Super, 1980), there is an implicit understanding that what has already occurred will affect current and future career success (Feldman et al., 2007; Super, 1980). According to Stumpf and Tymon (2012), past career mobility, promotions and salary change – particularly since these actions are often visible to others and appear to be objective indices of success- set the stage for future

opportunities and affect the way the professionals perceive themselves and are perceived by others.

A study by Stumpf and Tymon (2012) found significant positive correlations between satisfaction with career (a dimension of subjective career success) and the following two elements of past objective career success, namely promotions (r= .30) and salary change (r= .17).

Supported by theory, the above study suggests that a relationship exists between objective career success (past) and subjective career success. On this basis, one may anticipate in a conceptual model, subjective career success may theoretically be regarded as a result of past objective career success.

Therefore the following proposition is proposed:

Proposition 12: Objective career success (past) is positively related to subjective career success.

In the previous section, propositions 1-12 that will guide the current study in answering the two research questions were presented. Empirical and theoretical support for these propositions was discussed. Proposition 13 will be presented in Chapter 3.

The figure (Figure 2.1) below depicts the proposed relationships to be investigated by the current study as suggested by each of the propositions. It therefore becomes possible to understand the dynamic interaction between the variables and subjective career success.

Figure 2.1. Conceptual model: Factors influencing subjective career success

2.9 Summary

The preceding chapter provided an overview of the contemporary career theories that will guide the study. Emphasis was placed on both the boundaryless and protean careers. On the basis of previous research, this chapter also provided a broad overview of previous predictors of career success. Due to the uniqueness of the current study, similar and other predictors were discussed. The chapter included a discussion of the direct relationship between the chosen predictors and career success and was supplemented by empirical and theoretical evidence justifying the proposed relationships in the proposed theoretical model. The research methodology utilised in the current study is discussed in Chapter 3.

Transformational Leadership

Job Resources

Supportive Organisational Climate

Subjective Career Success Psychological

Capital Psychological

Empowerment

Past Job Resources

Objective Career Success (Current)

Objective Career Success (Past) Past Leadership