The Intervention and the Setting 140 

An experimental intervention was achieved by applying the content contained in a single leadership development program, the Northern Exposure to Leadership Institute (NELI), as the intervention or as is commonly referred to in experimental research, the treatment. The setting for the research was formal, intensive, library leadership development programs. Thus, NELI, a single library leadership development program represented the setting and the content that comprised NELI, the treatment. The NELI program with clearly identified attributes was purposively selected as the intervention for the experimental research and the setting for both the experimental and qualitative investigations. The program had been in existence for fifteen years prior to its inclusion in the research and has had a reasonably constant program and established format. The program was a good representative of a category of library leadership development programs in North America whose intent has been to develop emerging leaders in an immersive environment in a defined period of time.

The underlying philosophy, content and structure of the program have been replicated repeatedly and thus have been evident in numerous programs. However, none of the similar programs have had the longevity or constancy of the Northern Exposure to Leadership Institute. NELI also agreed to provide access to the participants and provide time in the programming for data collection. Nonetheless, the use of a single program for the research, albeit typical, had inherent weaknesses relating to external validity or generalization.

It was important to provide a description of the intervention so that the context could be appraised by potential users of the research. Shadish et al. (2002) suggested that the inherent weaknesses in single setting experimental research could be mitigated and generalizability enhanced if the users of the research were able to evaluate the surface similarity, rule out irrelevancies and make discriminations relative to the intervention or setting. Thus, a sufficient description of the setting as defined by the specific leadership development program, NELI, and the structure and attributes of that program which defined the

intervention were undertaken. Furthermore, the program content and attributes were part of the qualitative investigation. Thus, it was relevant to include the information relative to the program or intervention, in particular, the attributes and content. The information on NELI was based on my own prior experience with the program and on unpublished research conducted by Romaniuk (2008). Information on NELI was reviewed with the founder and Executive Director of the Northern Exposure to Leadership Institute, Ernie Ingles, on June 2, 2010 and January 26, 2011 for completeness and accuracy.

The gestalt of the development experience at NELI was derived from the combination of content, as well as the structure, setting, experiences and relationships (Romaniuk, 2008), which were collectively characterized in this study as attributes. The content and attributes

were associated with key components of the self-efficacy construct: mastery experiences, vicarious learning, social persuasion and affective or emotional arousal. Thus, the Institute was described in the context of the four variables that affect the development of leadership self-efficacy. Program attributes and content were assigned to the component of self-efficacy development that the program leader presumed they addressed, but the association was not based on any research that had confirmed these beliefs. E. B. Ingles (personal

communication, June 2, 2010) maintained that it was not any specific element or attribute that contributed to the longevity of the program and the perceived self-efficacy effects, but rather the entire package or what he referred to as the gestalt of the Institute. This

investigation was intended, in part, to better understand how the content and attributes actually related to LSE development.

NELI was an immersive six-day program incorporating the themes of visioning, curiosity and daring, integrity, and personal growth and employing experiential learning. E. B. Ingles (personal communication, June 2, 2010) advised that one of the Institute outcomes was to develop library leaders who would subsequently head library and information organizations and thus, respond to the leadership deficit identified in the library profession. A second, albeit more recently stated outcome, was to increase the self-confidence of participants so that they not only emerged as leaders but were effective leaders and heads of library organizations (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010). Accordingly, the

program elements focused on the four leadership attributes as espoused by Bennis (2003): an ability to engage others by creating shared meaning, a distinct voice that demonstrates self- confidence, purpose and a sense of self, integrity, and adaptive capacity which has been characterized by the ability to respond to relentless change through acting and then

evaluating actions rather than the more traditional response of collecting and analyzing data to determine an appropriate action.

 Social Persuasion

The setting for the institute was at a scenic, albeit remote location, Emerald Lake Lodge, near Field, British Columbia, in the heart of the Canadian Rockies. NELI occupied most or all of the available lodging units at the site. The location was ideal for reflection as the natural environment and the insulated nature of the institute literally cocooned the participants (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010).

NELI strived to make participants feel special, perhaps privileged, beginning with their arrival at the Calgary airport. As each participant arrived at the airport, they were greeted by a mentor or program organizer holding a sign with their name. E. B. Ingles (personal

communication, June 2, 2010) indicated that the process intended to make the participant not only feel welcome, but to bolster the belief that they were important. The airport greeting, the venue, the food, the ambiance, and the various books and program related artefacts were carefully chosen to send a message that these library professionals were valued and were a valuable asset to the profession and their institutions (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010). Participants were treated to an “executive” style experience. The Executive Director and founder, E. B. Ingles (personal communication, January 26, 2011) maintained that this special treatment merited the additional cost associated therewith because it was integral to the experience.

Participants were randomly divided into teams which remained intact for the entire institute. Each day participants sat with their teams and did most exercises on a team basis. Each team had two mentors assigned to it who stayed with that team for the duration of the

institute. Participants shared accommodation at Emerald Lake. Two participants were assigned to a room, which was done not only to control costs but to create a community of support for participants. However, teammates were never roommates (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, January 26, 2011).

Team members were encouraged to provide feedback and support to each other continually. Mentors provided feedback to the team and its individual members. The program incorporated a formal session on feedback and encouraged participants to provide feedback to one another. Mentors provided feedback privately to each participant on their team, midway through the institute. Xavier (2007) suggested that learning to give feedback is a necessary element of leadership training as research suggested that more than 50% of performance problems occurred because feedback was absent.

During social activities and at meal times mentors and leaders were asked to mix with all of the participants to provide encouragement and feedback. On the final evening teams each presented a skit that they have developed during the previous days. NELI was constructed to continually reinforce the idea that participants were all capable of leadership (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010).

 Vicarious Experience

Participants at NELI benefited from the wise counsel and demonstration of leadership by program mentors and leaders, who represented a cross section of the profession in that they were drawn from the academic, public, and special library communities as well as

professional associations, vendors, and the education or research community relating to libraries and librarianship (E.B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010). Not only did the mentors participate on teams, but they each gave an hour long “Northern Reflection” that

chronicled their journey to leadership. Near the end of the institute participants were given time to meet individually with up to three different mentors or leaders of their choice to discuss any aspect of leadership.

NELI expected that one of the most meaningful vicarious learning environments was created through the team structure and the ability of participants to get to know their team members very well over the course of the institute. The expectation was that participants would see fellow participants, who they perceived were similar to them, succeed at what they perceived as difficult leadership behaviours (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, January 26, 2011). In doing so, they would believe that they too possessed the capability to emulate the behaviour. Bandura (1994) suggested that the observation and emulation of specific behaviours seen in others who were similar to one was a powerful way of enhancing one's belief that they too were capable of the behaviour. Participants were also expected to learn vicariously from roommates and from other program participants while engaging in social and extracurricular activities.

 Affective Arousal

Several program elements that could be considered content were designed to evoke an emotional response in participants and thus had elements both of social persuasion and affective arousal. The opening evening incorporated symbolism in that participants were asked to throw away all feelings of negativity, doubt, fear etc. that they brought to the institute in an opening ceremony tied to aboriginal customs.

Several days later, the participants, mentors and leaders attended a Celebration Dinner where each person shared with the group something that they had achieved or accomplished recently. Crosbie (2005) found that celebration was an important component to learning.

Near the end of the program, the participants, leaders, and mentors again borrowed from an aboriginal custom and created a Commitment Circle where each person committed to undertake a specific professional activity that would demonstrate some aspect of leadership. The ceremony evoked different emotions in different participants as program feedback and formal evaluations indicated that the circle made some participants feel energized while others felt uncomfortable (E.B. Ingles, personal communication, January 26, 2011). Finally, the program concluded where it began, at the fire pit, with a “graduation” ceremony of a different sort; aboriginal elders shared a traditional ceremony which not only gave the participants an inner strength but reminded them of the support that would be offered by the experience, their colleagues, mentors and leaders as they embraced future leadership

challenges (E.B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010).

For most participants, the NELI experience created a significant level of stress and anxiety. Participants have reported that during the institute they often felt stressed and anxious not only because the entire experience was so intense, but because of the uncertainty as to what might be expected of them afterwards (E. B. Ingles, personal communication, January 26, 2011). The Institute endeavoured to assist the participants to manage the stress and to overcome the anxiety by providing support and reassurance in a variety of ways on a continuous basis. The soulful approach to providing leadership education created an

emotional, spiritual and physical response that succeeded in energizing and affirming participants (Brockmeyer-Klebaum, 2000). Mentors and leaders provided coaching and encouragement in experiential learning exercises so that anxious participants slowly

recognized that they had the power to overcome fear, control perceived threats and perform successfully thus turning a stressor into a positive learning experience (E. B. Ingles, personal

communication, January 26, 2011). Thus, mentors provided strategies to assist participants in approaching stressful situations and tasks. Bandura (1994) posited that guided mastery decreased apprehension and increased coping efficacy by breaking tasks down into manageable components which could be successfully achieved.

 Mastery Experiences

The program delivered content that was relevant to the four key attributes of leaders as specified by Bennis (2003) including creating shared meaning to engage others, knowing and having confidence in oneself, demonstrating integrity and showing a capacity to respond and adapt to relentless change. The content addressed the aspects of leadership that were most typically required of leaders in the library profession. Each session was a mix of lecture, experiential learning and engagement. The amount of time assigned for each area was not equal, but rather emphasis was on the areas that were perceived to merit the most attention for emerging leaders. Participants were given the opportunity to test their skills in a variety of leadership areas when each team was immersed in a case study. Case studies reflected reality in that they were drawn from actual settings and portrayed experiences that all participants either had encountered or would likely encounter in the future.

A significant amount of time was allocated to understanding the nature of leadership, the theories and the components, and understanding oneself. The Myers Brigs Type Indicator (MBTI) was used to help participants understand themselves and those with whom they worked in the profession. Xavier (2007) advocated for tools such as the MBTI in leadership development programs because they provide an objective assessment of leadership talent. Other similar tools were used to supplement and engage participants in self-discovery.

The program included content on working in teams and team leadership, which was enforced through the team structure of the institute and the major case study. Because setting a vision was seen as a critical aspect of library leadership (Hernon et al., 2003) each team created a vision for the organization identified in their respective case studies.

Other explicit and implicit program content included: Motivation, Power and Influence, Feedback, Networking, Risk Taking and Problem Solving, Personal Change and

Organizational Change Management, Communications and Organizational Communication, Interpersonal Relationships, Conflict, Trust, Personal Growth Plan and Reflection.

Many of the components focused on what would be considered by Day (2000) as

intrapersonal or leader development. Other aspects were focused on interpersonal aspects or leadership development. The program components were purposefully selected for inclusion (E.B. Ingles, personal communication, June 2, 2010). McCormick (2001) recommended that since mastery experiences, vicarious learning, social persuasion and psychological or

emotional states affect self-efficacy, experiences that acknowledge these factors should be part of any leadership development program.

As noted, the assignment of program attributes and content to the four areas of efficacy information was based on beliefs founded on a simplistic application of Bandura’s self- efficacy construct. However, social cognitive theory suggests that self-efficacy development is neither represented by a one to one correspondence nor is it simple. Not only could a given influence operate through more than one source of efficacy information, the cognitive

processing of the efficacy information that determines whether the information will be used to change efficacy also involves two separate and multi-faceted functions (Bandura, 1997). What we did not know, prior to this investigation, was how LDP attributes and content

affected leadership self-efficacy in participating librarians. While there was no evidence in the literature that it was the case in practice, social cognitive theory should inform the design of leadership development programs (McCormick, 2001). Thus, this research addressed gaps in the application of theory and enhanced the understanding of leadership development program content and attributes as they related to LSE in an environment that was defined as the Northern Exposure to Leadership Institute.